The Gandhara region, situated at the crossroads of ancient civilizations, has a rich and diverse artistic legacy that has long captivated scholars and art enthusiasts. Gandhara art flourished during the early centuries of the Common Era and is renowned for its unique blend of Buddhist iconography and Greco-Roman artistic traditions.

The Gandhara School of Art was one of the most significant art schools in ancient Indian history. Although Indian history integrates it, scholars distinctly associate it with the Greco-Bactrian art style. Greco-Bactrian art thrived primarily in Afghanistan and present-day northwestern India, with prominent centers including Taxila, Peshawar, Begram, and Bamiyan. Experts generally consider the Gandhara school of art to have flourished from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE.

Origin and Historical Evidence

According to historian Abdur Rasool, the region that is now Pakistan was the origin of the Gandhara Civilization, which emerged shortly after Alexander the Great’s arrival in 325 BC. This area also witnessed Alexander’s first military defeat at the hands of Raja Porus of Jhelum. Over the years, Gandhara underwent several political takeovers by Persian and Greek powers.

Various Power Structures

After Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BC, his vast empire fell apart quickly. This allowed Indian princes to regain their independence. During this turbulent period, Chandragupta Maurya, from the Magadha royal family, seized control of a large part of northwest India. Over time, he overthrew the Nanda dynasty in Magadha and became the ruler of Hindustan. Chandragupta reigned for 25 years before passing the throne to his son Bindusara in 298 BC. Like his father, Bindusara maintained friendly relations with the Greek rulers of the West, including the Seleucid dynasty, cemented through a marriage alliance after Chandragupta’s victory over the Greeks in battle.

People consider Ashoka, Chandragupta’s grandson, who became king in 272 BC, to be one of ancient India’s most capable and enlightened rulers. After witnessing the horrors of war, Ashoka embraced Buddhism and made it the state religion, even though the people were reluctant. However, Ashoka’s death marked the beginning of the Mauryan Empire’s decline. 

As historian V. Smith explains, the Indus Valley then came under the rule of the Greek rulers of Bactria, though they struggled to maintain control of the region. In the mid-2nd century AD, a new powerful group emerged in Central Asia—the Yuezhi, a nomadic and warlike people. They rapidly expanded westward, ending the Greek Kingdom of Bactria that had existed since Alexander the Great’s conquests.

This marked another pivotal moment in the region’s history, underscoring the fluid and shifting power structures that characterized ancient Central and South Asia.

Credits: Asia Society

The map shows the area covered by the Gandhara Civilisation. It includes present day Pakistan, Northeast of Afghanistan and Southwest of China.

Greek Influences

Gandharan art can be traced to the 1st century BCE and includes painting, sculpture, coins, pottery, and all the associated elements of an artistic tradition. It took flight during the Kushan era especially under King Kanishka in the 1st century CE, who deified the Buddha and arguably introduced the Buddha image.

John Boardman characterizes Gandhara art as the culmination of Greek artistic traditions, particularly those of Classical and Hellenistic Greece. The artistic traditions of northwest India, which was successively ruled by the Seleucids, Bactrians, Parthians, Scythians, and Indo-Greeks, were deeply influenced by these Greek styles. The Indo-Greeks were influenced by the Greeks since they were exposed to so much of their culture, philosophy, art, and architecture. The artists that worked in Bactria also worked in Gandhara as well. We can see the influence of Greek artists on Indian sculptures in that region. As a result, Buddhist sculptors were either Greeks or learned from the Greeks. The same people worked in Bactria and Gandhara and we can see that by comparing the art on the coins because both places had the same Indo-Greek monarch.

Introduction to Gandharan Art

Gandharan art emerged around the 1st century BCE, combining diverse cultural influences from the region. This artistic style encompassed a range of mediums, including painting, sculpture, coins, and pottery, reflecting the area’s cultural diversity. The art form, particularly thrived during the Kushan era, especially under the reign of King Kanishka in the 1st century CE. Kanishka played a crucial role in deifying the Buddha and is believed to have introduced the first iconic representations of the Buddha.

Greek Influence on Gandharan Art

According to renowned historian John Boardman, Gandharan art represents the culmination of influential Greek artistic traditions, particularly from the Classical and Hellenistic periods. The region of northwest India, which was successively governed by the Seleucids, Bactrians, Parthians, Scythians, and Indo-Greeks, absorbed substantial Greek influences in art and culture. The Indo-Greeks, having been exposed to Greek culture, philosophy, art, and architecture, brought these elements to Gandhara. Furthermore, artists from the region of Bactria also contributed to the art of Gandhara, infusing it with Greek aesthetics, which can be seen in the area’s Buddhist sculptures.

Mythological Representations and Artistic Techniques

Gandharan art repeatedly showcases figures from Greek mythology, like the iconic Trojan Horse and the mighty Heracles. A defining feature of Classical Greek sculpture is its lifelike depiction of the human form, often intertwined with divine elements. As the scholar Ridgeway observed, “the driving force behind Greek monumental stone sculpture was essentially religious in nature.” This religious and artistic approach, when blended with Indian cultural themes, heavily shaped the evolution of Buddhist iconography, particularly through the emergence of humanlike portrayals of the Buddha. The fusion of Greek artistic principles with Indian religious imagery resulted in a unique style that left a lasting mark on regional artistic traditions.

Hellenistic Features in Gandharan Art

Gandharan art clearly shows the influence of Hellenistic styles. The figures are inspired by Greek models, with wavy hair and tight, pleated clothing.

Credits: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The ideal Hellenistic physique – slender and muscular, like a Greek athlete – was used for Buddha and Bodhisattva sculptures. Even the ushnisha on the Buddha’s head was based on Hellenistic hairstyles. And the nimbus or halo around the Buddha’s head is reminiscent of the imagery used for Greek sun gods, like Apollo.

Credits: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Bodhisattva in Gandharan Art

In addition to representations of the Buddha, the Bodhisattva is a crucial part of Gandharan art. It symbolizes the Buddha before reaching enlightenment. Various Bodhisattvas from the Buddha’s past lives, like Avalokiteshvara, Maitreya, Padmapani, and Manjushri, are prominently featured in this artistic tradition. Unlike the simplicity of Buddha images, Bodhisattva sculptures and depictions are elaborately adorned, with jewelry, headdresses, robes, and footwear. This helps distinguish the different incarnations by their attire, postures, and symbolic mudras.

Credits: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Evolution into a Hybrid Style

At first, Gandharan art was heavily influenced by the Hellenistic style. However, over time it blended with Indian visual elements, crafting a unique hybrid style known as the Gandhara style. While Greek artistic influence didn’t spread across all of India, it clearly had a significant impact on regional sculpture. Back in the 3rd century BCE, Buddhist sculptures didn’t depict the Buddha as a human. Rather, they used symbols like the Dharma Chakra, thrones, footprints, or the Bodhi tree. It was only later, during the Hellenistic period, that the Buddha started being represented in an iconic human form.

Bactrian Influence on Gandharan Art

Bactria’s influence on Gandharan art is pretty clear. Archaeologist J. Hackin shed light on how important Bactria was. However, its role wasn’t fully appreciated until later excavations uncovered a major Graeco-Iranian artistic tradition there. The stucco heads from Gandhara are super diverse and complex – some were molded, others sculpted freehand. They show a mix of styles, with a realistic, individualized touch that traces back to Hellenistic terracottas and Greek art. These stuccos, found in places like Hadda and Taxila, often depict minor gods, demons, and patrons, highlighting the artistic connections between the regions.

Even though we don’t have tons of Graeco-Bactrian art and the timelines are murky, it’s obvious Bactria and Gandhara were closely linked. Some Bactrian sculptures act as a vital bridge between late Hellenistic art and Gandharan sculpture. They prove how intertwined these traditions were. Gandharan art blended Greek, Roman, Parthian, and Bactrian influences to create a unique style that still captivated scholars.

Important Archaeological Sites of Gandhara

Taxila: A World Heritage Site and Cultural Treasure

Taxila, located in Pakistan’s Punjab province, is a UNESCO World Heritage site that’s famous for its rich history. This old city is filled with all kinds of historic buildings, fortified towns, stupas, and monasteries. These display a mix of foreign influences in their art and architecture. From the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE, Taxila was an important hub for Buddhist education. It attracted scholars and monks from around the region to study Buddhist education. Many of the iconic Gandharan sculptures and artifacts have been discovered here over the years.

One of the most remarkable sites in Taxila is the Dharamrajika Stupa. People say that it contained the Buddha’s original relics. This place is full of Buddhist art, with loads of stone and stucco statues of the Buddha. Plus, the stupa has panels showing important moments from the Buddha’s life. So, it’s a crucial spot for learning about how Buddhism spread through the region.

Chakdara: A Historical Site

Chakdara, a site with a multi-millennial history, is another significant location near Taxila. It is dotted with archaeological remains from the Gandhara burial culture, Buddhist structures, and Hindu Shahi fortifications. This highlights its enduring importance within the regional historical narrative. Chakdara’s archaeological abundance offers invaluable insights into the diverse cultural and religious forces that have shaped the area over the course of centuries.

Charsadda: The Capital of Ancient Gandhara

Charsadda, the former capital of the Kingdom of Gandhara, was a historically significant city. Around 516 BCE, Gandhara was incorporated into the seventh satrapy, or province, of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, and its people paid tribute to Darius the Great. This status persisted until the region was conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE. This marked another pivotal chapter in Gandhara’s rich and diverse history. As the capital city, Charsadda’s historical importance and connections to major ancient empires underscore its central role in ancient Gandhara.

Conclusion

Today, Gandhara sculptures are not limited to Pakistan’s national and local museums. They are prominently displayed in prominent international art institutions across the Far East, Australia, Europe, and North America. Musée Guimet, the Berlin Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Museum, the MET, and the Oriental Institute all house exceptional examples of Gandhara art. This widespread global interest is a testament to the authentic beauty and enduring appeal of Gandhara sculpture. It captivates art enthusiasts worldwide much like the renowned pottery of ancient Greece and the art of ancient Egypt.

Historically, Indian art is marked by wealthy patrons and monarchs who built grand monuments for fame and religious merit. In contrast, during the early Buddhist period, ordinary people such as housewives, fishermen, gardeners, merchants, and bankers were central to constructing monuments called “stupas”. The term “stupa” is derived from Sanskrit, meaning “to gather” and “to add.” It can also refer to a lock of hair, the top of the head, a wreath of flowers, or a stack or pile of soil or bricks. The stupas were significant because they were the first major Indian artworks constructed using durable stone rather than more short-lived materials. Ordinary people drove this major innovation by collectively donating to build Buddhist stupas and early cave monasteries.

Origin and Historical Context

The origins of the stupa can be traced back to ancient India. Initially, they served as simple burial mounds or reliquaries for the remains of the Buddha and other revered figures. Over time, the stupa evolved into a complex symbol imbued with deep religious significance. The most famous example is the Great Stupa at Sanchi, commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. It remains a beacon of Buddhist art and architecture even today.

Stupas have since spread across Asia, from the towering structures of Borobudur in Indonesia to the ornate stupas of Tibet and the minimalist forms in Japan. Each region has adapted the stupa to match its own artistic and cultural traditions. However, the core symbolism – representing the Buddha’s enlightened state – has remained unchanged. 

These structures not only served as significant religious markers but also functioned as focal points for communal worship and pilgrimage. They reflect the collective devotion and egalitarian spirit of the early Buddhist laity, who resisted hierarchy and sought to uphold the Buddha’s original egalitarian vision.

At first, stupas were just places to enshrine the Buddha’s relics. Over time, they also became shrines for the remains of the Buddha’s followers. Eventually, the stupas themselves became objects of worship. Before Ashoka’s reign, people had already built eight stupas dedicated to the Buddha at different sites. Each of them connected to a significant moment in his life. Some stupas, like the Great Stupa in Sanchi, India, or the intricately designed Boudhanath Stupa in Kathmandu, Nepal, are grand and lavish, while others are simpler and understated.

Symbolism

By studying the Sanchi Buddhist temple, historians have uncovered the deep symbolism and significance of early Buddhist art. The artistic expressions of these early devotees showcased their commitment to Buddhism’s central tenets and captured the Buddha’s dual nature – both human and divine.

Art historian J. Irwin explains that early stupas had two main parts: a central pillar rising from the ground and a dome-like roof called the anda or “egg.” These structures formed a Cosmogram, representing the cosmic order, which was imposed on the land where the stupa was built. Irwin emphasizes that the central pillar, known as the yupa or Inda-khila, had deep cosmogonic and religious significance.

Originally made of wood, this pillar symbolized the Axis Mundi. The Axis Mundi connects to the World Tree and World Pillar, symbols that represent the link between heaven and Earth. The orientation of the Axis Mundi to the four cardinal directions symbolised the unity of space and time. This allowed worshippers to align themselves with the cosmic cycle.

Irwin further notes that some stupas were metaphorically surrounded by water, symbolising the Cosmic Waters. The metaphorical symbol reinforces the idea of the stupa as a microcosm—a dynamic representation of the universe’s creation. The ancient Vedic text, the Rigveda, presents the idea that the stupa’s dome represents the Primordial Mound formed from the cosmic waters. In the early days, ordinary people worshipped stupas. After the Buddha’s death, they saw the stupa as a way to honour him and earn good karma since he was no longer physically present. Over time, the stupa became a symbol representing the departed Buddha and Buddhists. It focused on incorporating the Buddha’s physical remains within these structures.

Structure and Meaning

The Buddhist stupa represents the core teachings of Buddhism. It encourages practitioners to understand that life involves suffering. But this can be overcome by changing one’s perspective. By following the Buddha’s teachings, people can gain deeper insight, manage their thoughts and actions better, and find inner peace and harmony. The stupa’s design and purpose help practitioners recognise the impermanent nature of life – that desires, fears, and grief are temporary. This allows them to value these aspects without becoming overly attached. Gathering and focusing their energy at the stupa can help practitioners centre and uplift themselves through rituals.

The stupa’s design is meant to inspire the mind. Its tall spire, called the yasti, represents the axis mundi, the centre of the Earth around which the universe turns. It also symbolises the World Tree, found in many cultures, with roots deep in the Earth and branches reaching up to the sky. Around the yasti stands a square gate known as the harmika, and above it are parasols that symbolise protection, grandeur, and the Buddha himself. The stupa’s large dome rises from the central spire to a square base. This is occasionally enclosed by a wall with four gates facing the cardinal directions. These directions represent four important moments in Buddha’s life:

• East: Buddha’s birth
• South: Buddha’s enlightenment
• West: Buddha’s first teaching
• North: Buddha’s final passing away (Nirvana)

Symbolism of Stupa Architecture

Credits: World History Encyclopaedia

The parts of the stupa’s architecture have deep symbolic meaning. They guide followers toward a spiritual understanding of the universe. This profound Buddhist belief is shown in different aspects of the stupa’s design:

1. Anda: The stupa’s dome, or anda, is circular, symbolising infinity and continuity. In Indian art, the circle represents the eternal and divine movement of the heavens. The circular design of the stupa is a metaphor for the endless nature of Nirvana. This idea relates to the Mandala, which represents a sacred space, and the Chakra, which symbolises the divine order of the universe.
2. Harmika: The harmika is the square section connecting the stupa’s circular base to its upper levels. In Buddhist art, the harmika symbolises the heavenly realm above the physical world. The square shape represents stability, solidity, and the boundaries of the Earth, while the circle signifies the infinite nature of the universe.
3. Yasti: The central axis, known as the yasti, represents the cosmic axis around which the universe revolves. This axis serves as a connection between the Earth and the heavens, symbolising the unity of the cosmos. Additionally, the yasti is associated with the mythology of the cosmic serpent, Ananta, whose infinite nature mirrors the eternal qualities of the universe.
4. Chatraveli: The umbrellas, or chatraveli, placed atop the yasti represent respect and safeguarding. These umbrellas, traditionally linked to esteemed individuals, have become symbols of the three core aspects of Buddhism: the Buddha, dharma (the teachings), and sangha (the community).
5. Palisades: The fences surrounding the stupa are based on ancient Indian traditions of enclosing sacred spaces. The stone palisades around the Sanchi Stupa drew inspiration from wooden fences that once protected holy sites, evoking the ancient symbol of the swastika and the protective barriers used by farmers to safeguard their livestock.

Conclusion

The Buddhist stupa is a remarkable architectural structure and a piece of art that visually expresses the core principles and beliefs of Buddhism. It captures the essence of Buddhist teachings through symbols in a timeless and accessible form. The stupa serves as a reminder of the path to enlightenment, encouraging practitioners to engage with the Buddha’s teachings through contemplation and ritual practice.

India has a great tradition of string puppets, which reflects its multicultural society. Every region has its own style based on local traditions, folklore, and artistry. Let us look at six notable types of string puppets from various states that celebrate their distinctive attraction and importance.

Putal Nach – Assam

Putal Nach, the traditional string puppetry of Assam, is an example of rich Assamese culture. They are typically wooden or cloth puppets staging stories from local myths, legends and social matters. Traditional music accompanies this performance, and the background is rhythmic for these colourful narratives. Putal Nach’s act remains one of the most cherished art forms as it keeps alive the cultural heritage of storytelling in Assam.

Gombeyatta – Karnataka

Gombeyatta string puppetry in Karnataka is famous for its elaborate dolls and dynamic performances. The dolls are carved out of wood with bright outfits and meticulously designed countenances. Many performances show episodes from Hindu epics like Ramayana or Mahabharata. Gombeyatta unites dance, music, and drama to present a stunning event capable of captivating audiences of any age.

Kalasutri Bahulya – Maharashtra

The traditional puppetry of Maharashtra is called Kalasutri Bahulya. These are wooden puppets, which are simple but highly expressive. With the help of strings, they depict stories from folklore and mythology along with moral lessons. Lively dialogues and Marathi songs reflect cultural ethos in these performances. Kalasutri Bahulya fosters artistic education and entertainment.

Gopalila Kundhei – Odisha

The string puppets used in Gopalila Kundhei from Odisha are intricate. These puppets are manipulated gracefully through their strings to portray stories about Krishna’s life. The attention to detail on these puppets is evident since they are usually painted with bright colours. While performing, traditional Odia music and narrations accompany them, keeping Gopalila Kundhei a precious art form involving ancient stories.

Kathputli – Rajasthan

Kathputli is a famous string puppetry of Rajasthan, characterised by its intricate puppets and engaging storytelling. Kathputli dolls, made of wood and cloth, have vivid attires and expressive faces. Often accompanied by performances, folk music tells tales about great kings, queens and other legendary heroes. On the part of Rajasthan, this is not just an art but rather a living tradition that portrays their rich cultural tapestry.

Bommalattam – Tamil Nadu

Bommalattam, the traditional puppet theatre of Tamil Nadu, is combined with dancing and drama. These dolls are mostly made from wood or cloth and are used to explain tales from the ancient epics, folklore and local legends. Bommalattam performances are colourful, and the Tamil spoken dialogues are lively, with music to capture the true spirit and culture that characterise South India.

India’s string puppetry goes beyond mere entertainment; it is a living tradition that perpetuates cultural narratives of different regions. Each type of puppetry has unique features and storytelling techniques that enrich the Indian mosaic heritage by ensuring that these age-old art forms captivate future generations.

After the collapse of the Kushan empire, several new and established kingdoms emerged on the edge. One such dynasty was the Guptas, believed to have originated as a wealthy family from either Magadha or Prayaga (now in Uttar Pradesh). The Gupta era is celebrated as the “Golden Age” of classical India. This was the time when renowned universities like Nalanda and Taxila flourished. Additionally, eminent writers and scientists, such as Kalidasa and Aryabhatta, helped foster immense creativity. Gupta art and coinage are revered as the pinnacles of classical Indian art. They are renowned for their exceptional craftsmanship, intricate designs, and high-quality materials. However, the level of excellence in Gupta numismatic art appears to have declined over time. This left the later periods to be perceived as unable to match their artistic prowess.

Numismatic Art and Coinage

Coins are prominent because of their inherent value and most importantly, their role in political and economic activities. Coins have been closely tied to individuals, institutions, and states since ancient times. They are an important archaeological source for understanding India’s history. The Gupta coins are the earliest indigenous coinage of India. The Gupta gold coins, known as Dinars, are exceptional examples of numismatic and artistic excellence. While briefly showing some foreign influence, they quickly became thoroughly Indian in their art, motifs, and execution.

The gold coinage of the Imperial Guptas is unparalleled in ancient Indian numismatics for its artistic merit, variety, and originality. Gupta coinage represents the height of metallurgy and iconography. Being native, they depict the king, queen, and deities in Indian attire with great elegance. Gupta coins show the ruler in diverse poses and attributes – standing and wielding a bow, battle axe, or standard, sometimes with an umbrella bearer, often engaged in a battle with a lion, tiger, or rhinoceros, and at times riding a horse or elephant, playing a lute, or feeding a peacock.

Chandragupta I: King and Queen Type

Credits: Coin India

The “King and Queen” coins issued by Chandragupta depict him and his wife, Kumaradevi. This coinage commemorates a crucial moment in early Gupta history – Chandragupta’s marriage to the Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi. This alliance helped boost the young and ambitious king’s fortunes, enabling him to start expanding his territory.

On the front, Chandragupta is shown standing, often with a crown, dressed in fancy attire like trousers, a headdress, and a tailored coat. On the coins, the king has his right hand raised close to the queen’s face, leaving numismatists wondering what exactly is happening between them – some think he might be holding an object or applying sindoor (vermilion) to her forehead. Kumaradevi is shown standing beside him, wearing a sari, an upper garment, and jewellery. Some coins even have a crescent symbol between the royal couple. The reverse depicts a goddess seated on a lion, holding a noose and a cornucopia, on a dotted background. Variations in the positioning of the legends and the orientation of the figures indicate the existence of different subtypes of these coins.

Samudragupta

During his long reign, he minted a variety of coin types, with the standard type being the most popular. The archer and battle-axe coins were variations of this standard type and were considered military-themed. To celebrate his battlefield victories, he conducted the Ashvamedha sacrifice, which led to the introduction of the Ashvamedha coin. He also had a love for sports and music, and to share these passions with his subjects and future generations, he included them on some of his coins, creating the tiger-slayer and lyrist types.

Standard Type

Credits: Coin India

The coin shows a well-dressed king on the obverse, holding a standard in his left hand and offering incense with his right on an altar. Behind him is a decorated standard topped with a Garuda. The inscriptions around the image include “Samudragupta” and a legend:  ‘samara-sata-vitata-vijayo jita-ripurajito divam jayati’ (The conqueror of the unconquered fortresses of his enemies, whose victory was spread in hundreds of battles, conquers heaven). On the reverse side, the goddess Lakshmi is depicted seated on a throne, holding a Cornucopia in her left hand and a noose in her right, with her feet resting on a circular mat.

Archer Type

Credits: Coin India

On the archer type coin, the king is shown standing to the left, holding a bow with the string facing inwards. His right hand might be holding an arrow or offering something on an altar. In front of him, there’s a Garuda standard with a decorative filet, and sometimes a crescent is positioned between the king’s head and the banner. The inscriptions include “Samudragupta” and a circular legend that reads, “‘apratiratho vijitya kshitim sucharitair (or avaniso) divam jayati” (Unopposed by hostile chariots, conquering the earth through good deeds, he conquers heaven.) On the reverse side, there’s a goddess (likely Lakshmi) seated, holding a Cornucopia in her left hand and a noose in her right.

The Battle Axe Type

Credits: Coin India

On the battle axe type coin, the king is shown standing either to the left or right, usually with a sword at his belt. His right-hand rests on his waist, while his left hand holds a battle axe (parasu). Next to him, on either side, is a dwarf attendant standing and looking up at him, with a crescent-topped banner between them. The inscription reads, “kritantaparasurjayatyajitarajajetajitah” (Wielding the axe of Kritanta (the god of death), the unconquered conqueror of unconquered kings is victorious.) On the reverse side, the goddess Lakshmi is seated on a throne, holding a noose in her right hand and either a Cornucopia or a lotus bud in her left, with her leg resting on a lotus.

The Asvamedha Type

Credits: Coin India

Historians consider the Ashvamedha type of Samudragupta one of the most beautiful Gupta coins. On this coin, you’ll see an unadorned horse, sometimes with a neck strap, standing to the left in front of a sacrificial post. The post is decorated with a pedestal, and a pennon flies above the horse from the top of the post. Below the horse is the letter “si,” and the circular inscription reads, “rajadhirajah prithivimavitva (or vijitya) divam jayatyahrita-vajimedhah” (The overlord of kings, who has performed the horse-sacrifice, having protected the earth, conquers heaven.) On the reverse side, the crowned queen Dattadevi stands to the left on a pearl-bordered circular mat. She holds a chouri (a ceremonial whisk) over her right shoulder in her right hand, with a towel hanging by her side in her left hand.

Tiger Slayer Type

Credits: Coin India

Another unique coin type created by Samudragupta’s artisans is the tiger-slayer type, designed to highlight the king’s martial skills. On this coin, the king stands to the right, wearing a turban, a short jacket, and a close-fitting dhoti. He tramples a tiger while attacking and shooting it with a bow. His left hand is pulling the bowstring to his ear, and a crescent-topped standard with a decorative filet is visible behind the tiger. The circular inscription reads “vyaghraparakramah,” which means “Having the prowess of a tiger.” On the reverse side, the goddess Ganga stands on a Makara (a mythical sea creature), holding a lotus in her left hand and with her right hand outstretched and empty. To the left, there is a crescent-topped banner with filets. The legend here is “raja Samudraguptah,” meaning “King Samudragupta.”

The Lyrist Type

Credits: Coin India

The Lyrist type of Samudragupta is a striking and distinctive coin. It depicts the king seated comfortably on a high-backed couch, playing a string instrument like a lyre or lute. This choice to showcase himself as a musician reflects his interests and the cultural values of the Gupta era. Samudragupta was indeed a noted patron of the arts and a talented musician and poet. On this coin, there’s a tamgha (a mark or emblem) in front of Lakshmi’s face. Beneath the couch is the inscription “si,” and the circular legend reads “maharajadhiraja sri Samudraguptah,” meaning “Samudragupta, overlord of kings.” On the reverse side, the goddess Lakshmi sits to the left on a stool, holding a noose in her right hand and a Cornucopia in her left.

Chandragupta II

Chandragupta II did not merely replicate his father’s coin designs but made several impressive changes. He retained the standard, archer, but transformed the tiger-slayer into the lion-slayer and replaced the lyrist type with the couch type. Furthermore, he abandoned the Ashvamedha and Kritantaparasu types. Chandragupta II introduced fresh designs such as the Chakravikrama, horseman, and chhatra. His coins often featured the title “Vikrama,” either on its own or combined with words like “ajita,” “simha,” or “chakra.” Later, Chandragupta II started minting silver coins to meet the demands of the newly acquired regions of Gujarat and Kathiawar. He based these on the Kshatrapa silver issues from western India. Chandragupta II also produced a variety of copper coins, including the chhatra, standing king, archer, bust, chakra, and vase types, showcasing considerable creativity.

Coinage and Numismatics: Post-Gupta Age

After the Gupta era, there was a noticeable decline in the quality of numismatic art. Coins became scarce between 900 A.D. and 1200 A.D. due to ongoing internal conflicts among medieval kings. This left their kingdoms fragmented and their treasuries depleted. As a result, inferior metals like nickel, copper, and lead replaced gold and silver for coinage.

Frequent coups and changes in succession led to the rapid minting and demonetization of dynastic coins. For instance, Rajput coins only featured martial motifs. Islamic prohibitions on idolatry meant that the coins of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire usually only featured text, such as the king’s name and the date of issue. Aurangzeb had to debase his coins due to the weakening and land revenue decline in the Mughal Empire. This reduction in metal content and quality further diminished the aesthetic appeal and craftsmanship of the highest denomination coins. 

British-Indian coins were similarly monotonous. They featured only the denomination and year on one side and the king or queen’s portrait on the other. After independence, the Lion Capital of the Ashoka Pillar and other symbols of sovereignty and freedom replaced the king’s portrait.

The excellence of Gupta coinage remains unparalleled in Indian history. Therefore, the Gupta period was the “Golden Age” of classical India. This is due to the large number of gold coins circulated by various Gupta rulers, reflecting a flourishing economy.

Asia, although highly neglected by Western conformities, has always had a rich heritage of art and literature. This is majorly evident in the folktales that have managed their way into contemporary art. Shadow puppetry is one such ancient art form of storytelling. It uses flat articulated cut-out figures called shadow puppets. These puppets are held between a source of light and a translucent color screen. It has been an ancient art and a living folk tradition in China, India, Iran Nepal, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia and many more.

According to historians, the shadow puppets of southern India enjoyed the patronage of several dynasties, such as the Rashtrakutas, Pallavas, Kadambas, Chalukyas and Hoysalas, as well as the support of the rulers of Vijayanagara and Mysore. Imperial patronage was also extended to the Killekyata community, the traditional performers of the puppetry form. Records of this are found via an award granted to them in 1520 AD in the Bijapur Sultanate.

Tholu Bommalata from Andhra Pradesh

Tholu Bommalata is the ancient traditional shadow theater of Andhra Pradesh. Literally, “atta” translates to “dance” and “Tholu Bommalu” refers to “leather puppets”. According to historical literature and records, the use of these puppets dates back to 200 B.C. under the Satavahana dynasty. The major works that fall under this storytelling tradition are the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. Additionally, other sacred Hindu texts that are no longer commonly narrated in contemporary times. These old texts have been replaced by more relevant social and environmental themes, such as reforestation or the domestic lives of ordinary people. While anyone can manipulate the puppets, only a skilled sutradhar can bring them to life. Traditionally, the sutradhar is the head of the family, with each member performing a specific role: dancer, singer, narrator, and actor. 

Tholu Bommalu are the largest shadow puppets in India. The puppets are made of leather, and the origin of the leather holds significant importance. Previously, deer leather represented gods, goat leather for saints or common people, and buffalo leather for demons. Today, however, goat skin is the primary material used. Considering the spiritual value attached to the gods and the impure means of sourcing the leather, numerous rituals are performed to purify the puppets before they are used to represent the spiritual deities. The puppets are highly regarded, and a proper funeral is conducted, where they are released into the waters of the Ganga River. Unfortunately, Tholu Bommalata is a dying art form. Only 9 active troupes today, compared to over 180 troupes active in 30 different Indian districts just fifty years ago.

Togalu Gombeyaata from Karnataka

Togalu Gombeyaata is a form of shadow puppetry practiced in Karnataka. It draws on epics, folktales, coarse humor, and high drama, as well as song and prose in its puppet plays performed through the night. Togalu Gombeyaata also shares historical and communal roots with Tholu Bommalata.

The Killekyata community derives its name from the eponymous character of a Togalu Gombeyaata performance, who provides an element of coarse comedy during a play. The community’s roots are traced to the present-day region of southern Maharashtra, from where groups of performers migrated to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

The Togalu Gombeyaata figures are made of cattle skin and cast shadows on the screen during a play. Once the hide has been cleaned and tanned, it is chiseled along the outline of characters to create individual and composite puppets with rich details. A bamboo split, attached vertically along the center of the puppet, is used for manipulation. Traditional puppets, made of a single piece of deerskin, did not have articulated parts, demanding more skill and imagination from the puppeteer, which influenced the performance; the introduction of a principal character was accompanied by a detailed narration describing its physical features and attributes.

The repertory of Togalu Gombeyaata draws on the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, the Puranas, and local folktales called Janapada Kathegalu. A performance is held between 10 pm and dawn of the following morning, beginning with an invocation to Ganesha and Saraswati. Songs and dialogues, often witty, are used alternatively, and musicians accompany the puppeteers on the flute, dhol, cymbals, mukhavina, pungi, and ektari. An overnight Togalu Gombeyaata performance requires at least fifty puppets, including figures depicting birds, animals, and scenes.

Togalu Gombeyaata, like other puppet art forms, is in decline. The number of active troupes has decreased, and the tradition is being preserved by a few generational puppeteers. T Hombaiah, Bellagallu Veeranna, and Gunduraju are master puppeteers who have performed nationally and internationally and received recognition from central and state organizations. Veeranna, who also practiced the folk theater form of Bayalata, has expanded the repertoire of Togalu Gombeyaata while maintaining the traditional aesthetic. He has introduced themes based on social issues, India’s independence struggle, and biographical plays on figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Shivaji Bhonsle I. Gunduraju, whose family has a 200-year legacy in Togalu Gombeyaata, has established a research and training center to preserve the related shadow puppet forms in Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.

Tholpavakoothu from Kerala

Tholpavakoothu is a traditional shadow puppet play performed in Bhadrakali temples across the Palakkad, Malappuram, and Thrissur districts of Kerala. This art form, which originated in the 18th century, is also known as Pavakoothu or Nizhalattam. The performances take place on a special stage called a Koothumadam, located within the temple courtyard. The Tholpavakoothu art utilizes puppets crafted from deer skin to depict characters from the Kamba Ramayana. The show begins late at night and continues until daybreak, narrating the events from Lord Rama’s birth to his coronation as the King of Ayodhya. The language used is a blend of Malayalam and Tamil dialects.

The puppets, representing both noble and evil characters, are meticulously manipulated behind a white curtain lit by wick lamps. The chief puppeteer, known as the ‘Pulavan,’ leads the captivating performance. Today, Tholpavakoothu is primarily confined to the Ottapalam and Kavalappara regions of the Palakkad district.

Kerala’s rich cultural heritage is beautifully reflected in this art form, which seamlessly integrates Aryan and Dravidian cultural elements. Tholpavakoothu, performed along the banks of the river Nila, utilizes approximately 160 puppets for a full performance, which can last between 7 and 71 days, depending on the temple’s traditions. The puppeteers, often led by a Pulavar, undergo intensive training in both puppetry and the languages involved. The art form is preserved and promoted by dedicated troupes. Koonathara, founded by the renowned Tolpava Koothu artist, the late Guru Krishnan Kutty Pulavar is one such art form.

Chamdyacha Bahulya from Maharashtra

Chamdyacha Bahulya is a classic shadow puppet theater art from Maharashtra, India. In the local Marathi language, “bahulya” means “figure” and “chamdyacha” means “leather.” The village of Pinguli, where this art thrives, is known for its skilled puppeteers from the Thakur/Thakar Adivasi community. These folks are mostly fishermen and farmers by trade. Each puppet show involves a puppeteer-storyteller, an assistant, and two musicians playing the dholak and pakawatch, as well as the jodiwala and wata, while also providing vocals.

The full puppet set has 65 figures carved from colorful buffalo leather. These figures typically lack moving parts, except sometimes having a single movable arm attached by a leather pin. The puppeteer controls the figures by manipulating a wooden or bamboo rod running through them. The characters, like kings and gods, are depicted in the Mughal artistic style, with features like mustaches, beards, and baggy pants.

Performances start with a dancer figure at the court of the god Indra. This is followed by the storyteller Haridas who begins the tale in Marathi. The main puppeteer sings scenes from the Ramayana, Panchavati, and Ravana Badha in Tamil or Kannada. The musicians provide the spoken dialogue. These puppet shows take place on a permanent stage in the village, expanded around temples or sacred sites during religious festivals or major fishing/harvest events. Today, troupes and traditional families in Pinguli continue this Chamdyacha Bahulya art. Some master puppeteers are recognized for their important contributions both locally and nationally.

Ravanachhaya from Odisha

In the Indian state of Odisha, there exists a unique shadow puppet tradition called Ravanachhaya. As the name suggests, it tells stories from the Ramayana epic. This tradition was especially popular in the Dhenkanal and Talcher regions during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It even enjoyed the support of the local royal family. The origins of Ravanachhaya are somewhat mysterious. Some scholars believe it dates back to the 3rd century BCE. On the other hand, some link it to the Indonesian wayang kulit tradition, which is even older. There is also speculation that the name might reflect influences from Jain and Buddhist texts, which sometimes portray the villain Ravana in a more sympathetic light. However, the puppeteers themselves say the name was chosen because the hero Rama is believed not to cast a shadow. Even though earlier regional texts do not explicitly mention Ravanachhaya, they do refer to shadow puppetry more broadly.

Traditionally, Ravanachhaya was performed by the nomadic Charan people, who were traveling performers entertaining wealthy families. Despite its religious themes, it was not confined to temples and was a popular folk theater style. In the 20th century, the Vichitra Ramayana by Odia poet Vishwanath Kunthia became the main source text for Ravanachhaya performances. This blended classical and folk music. There is limited information prior to this record. A typical Ravanachhaya show might feature many different puppet characters, scenes, animals, and composite figures. It may go up to 700 puppets to tell the entire Ramayana story.