Indian miniature paintings are small-scale, highly detailed paintings. They take place on a very small scale, using tiny brushes. They originated in India around 750 AD, during the rule of the Pala Empire. Originally painted on palm leaves, miniature paintings had to be made small enough to fit them! These paintings often illustrated religious texts such as the Holy Quran, as well as ancient myths. The paint brushes were mostly made from squirrel hair, which is small enough to capture fine detail. Originally, miniature painters used colors from natural sources like vegetables, precious stones, and gold and silver. Each color had a special purpose. Black was used to provide depth, red for celebration, green for nature, blue for small details and gold leaf for armor, or to mark the head of a divine figure. The most common theme used in the miniature paintings of India comprises the Ragas or a pattern of musical notes, and religious and mythological stories. They are a living tradition with many contemporary artists still pursuing the art form. 

History and Evolution

When miniature paintings originated in India , the religious teachings of the Buddha were written on palm leaves and were accompanied by his images.  As these paintings were done on palm leaves, they had to be miniature in nature because of space constraints. Around 960 A.D, similar paintings portraying religious themes were introduced in the western parts of India by the rulers of the Chalukya Dynasty. The rise of the Mughal Empire brought with it an insane surge in the popularity of miniature paintings. Akbar’s love for art led to the development of an extraordinary combination of Indian miniature paintings with elements of Persian style of painting. This gave rise to the Mughal style of painting which further evolved with the influence of European paintings in the Mughal court.

Famous Schools of Miniature

Pala School, dating back to the 8th century A.D. has the earliest miniature paintings. This school of painting emphasized on the symbolic use of colors and the themes were often taken from the Buddhist tantric rituals. The Orissa School of miniature painting flourished during the 17th century A.D. They displayed the love stories of Radha and Krishna and also stories from ‘Krishna Leela’ and ‘Gita Govinda’.

The Jain School of painting being one of the oldest, gained prominence in the 11th century A.D when religious texts like ‘Kalpa Sutra’ and ‘Kalkacharya Katha’ were portrayed in the form of miniature paintings. It portrayed enlarged eyes, square shaped hands and stylish figures.

The coming together of Indian paintings and Persian miniature paintings gave rise to the Mughal School of miniature painting. The Mughal style of painting flourished under the reign of Akbar and majorly depicted scenes from the royal court, hunting expeditions, wildlife and battles.

Rajasthani School of painting was further divided into various schools. Each Rajputana kingdom had its own distinct style with a few common features. From depicting stories from the Ramayana and the royal lifestyle of kings and queens to portraying the legacy of present and past rulers, they had it all.

Pahari School of miniature painting emerged in the 17th century A.D. These paintings originated in the kingdoms of North India, in the Himalayan region. The portrayal of gods and goddesses is one of the most common features of the Pahari School of miniature painting. The scenic beauty of the Himalayas was also often depicted in these paintings.

The Deccan School of miniature painting flourished in places like Ahmednagar, Golconda, Tanjore, Hyderabad and Bijapur from 16th to 19th century A.D. The Deccan School of miniature painting was largely influenced by the rich traditions of the Deccan and the religious beliefs of Turkey, Persia and Iran.

Miniature Paintings Now

Even after the decline of the Mughal Empire, miniature paintings and artists were patronized by the Rajput rulers of Rajasthan. Most of these miniature paintings depicted the lifestyle of kings and queens, the  mythological stories of Lord Krishna and Radha and also narrated tales of bravery. Though most of the miniature paintings were anonymous, there were a few remarkable artists who left behind a name. Some renowned artists included Mir Sayyid Ali, Nainsukh, Manaku and Miskin. Today, a lot of miniature paintings are preserved in museums and in old Rajasthani forts. The art is kept alive in a few regions in India under the patronage of royal families. Miniature paintings hold an unparalleled place in Indian history, glorifying the culture of India, its essence will always prevail.

“India is a land of diverse cultures”- The first line in every Environmental Science (EVS) book, and it’s rightly so. People in India have their differences owing to their different cultural upbringings but are united by the same differences that divide them. From food to music to clothes the variety you will encounter as you move from one end of India to another will leave you shell-shocked for days.

Amidst this array of cultures, there is one such state which lives in a world of its own and teaches people the true meaning of “doing it at your own pace”. Yes, we are talking about Odisha. Located in the eastern part of the country Odia people are the masters of marching to the beat of their drums.

Imagine it’s one of those annoyingly hot summer days and you have a craving to eat rice, but it’s piping hot, what do you do? Odia solution: Pour water over it! 

Pakhala: A Delight

It won’t be surprising if you have scrunched up your nose in disgust at the above-mentioned solution. Hate it or love it, that’s how they do it in Odisha (although we would suggest don’t hate it before you try it). Pakhala is close to every Odia as Idli is to Tamils, as Chole is to Punjabis, and as Dhokla is to Gujratis. It’s everything that makes one authentically Odia.

And rightly so. Requiring just 3 ingredients, i.e., cooked rice, water, and salt, Pakhala is a sight for sour eyes for every Odia. During the extremely hot days of Indian summer, Pakhala not only fills your tummy but also rehydrates you with salt and water. Now now, before you start making assumptions about how can one actually like rice submerged in water with salt, let’s get to the lip-smacking part!

The Way of Pakhala

The traditional way does include just adding water to cooked rice and consuming it with salt but that doesn’t mean that’s the only way you can eat it. Many people prefer adding some curd (Dahi Pakhala), fried cumin with curry leaves (Jira Pakhala), lemon water, ginger (Ada Pakhala), etc. The most common way Pakhala is eaten is either Saja (adding water to freshly made rice) or Basi (adding water to rice and leaving it overnight to ferment). We highly recommend the Basi one but if you’re someone who doesn’t like a sour taste then better to stick with Saja.

The best part about Pakhala is that it tries to take the backstage during any meal time. It’s the side dishes that accompany it from fried fish and sukhua poda (dry fish fried), to saga bhaja (water spinach stirfry), badi chura (sun-dried lentil dumpling crushed and mixed with finely chopped onion, garlic and chillies) and aloo bhaja (stirfried potatoes), the side dishes always steal the show. But when you’re panting from biting onto a piece of chilli in the badi chura, or from the heat of the fried fish, it’s Torani (the water used in Pakhala) that saves the day.

Pakhala Divas

Did you know that there’s a day dedicated to this delicacy? Yes, you read it right, Pakhala Divas or Pakhala Dibasa is celebrated every year on 20^th March. It is unknown when Pakhala became a part of the Odia diet but it was included in the recipe of Lord Jagannath Temple of Puri circa the 10th century. 

Many parts of India do enjoy this delicacy but with different names, such as; ‘Panta Bhat’ in West Bengal, ‘Poita Bhat’ in Assam, ‘Paani Bhat’ in Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, and ‘Pazhaya Sadam’ in Tamil Nadu. 

Afterword

No matter what you call it Pakhala is that simple diamond that will shine the brightest among any other dish during a hot summer day, or on days when you’re just lazy and want to enjoy a simple meal. There’s no one way to eat Pakhala as you can tailor it and its side dishes to cater better to your taste buds. But fair warning, never try to eat Pakhala with a spoon in front of an Odia, it’s as shocking as eating Biryani with a spoon or Panipuri with a spoon, the horror is real!

Thiruvalluvar, or just known as Valluvar, was a Tamil poet, philosopher and sage, a person who transformed a life from rags to riches. He lived during the Sangam age of the Tamil culture, or more specifically, the Sangam period. Even though born some two thousand years ago, his works, teachings and insights still hold grave value even today. Valluvar has talked extensively on subjective human topics and aspects like love, justice, life, good and evil, wisdom, etc. On Thiruvalluvar day, let’s have a look at the poet’s personal life and upbringing along with some of must read written words.

Valluvar: Personal Life And His Philosophy

The exact dates and particulars of Valluvar’s life remain unknown. According to historians, Valluvar was born in the 1st century CE in a village near modern-day Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, or also called the city of Madurai. The name ‘Thiruvalluvar’ translates to ‘the devotee of the Valluva caste’. He married at a young age to a woman named Vasuki, who was described as a “chaste and devoted lady, an ideal wife, who never disobeyed the orders of her husband, but always carried them out implicitly.” The couple had a daughter together.

As stated above, not much is known of Valluvar’s personal life, yet it is speculated that during his earlier years, he worked as a weaver, while other scholars speculate that he was most probably a government official in a district near Madurai. Later, he lived in recluse near Kanchipuram, where he penned his most prominent works ever, ‘Thirukkural‘.

Thiruvalluvar’s philosophy circled around living a divine life of sanctity. While major sages and philosophers suggested leaving the family behind and becoming a Sannyasin, Valluvar on the other hand, offered an alternative. He suggested and fostered the idea of attaining a balance between living a life of a householder and that of a sanctified divine and pure human being. He recorded these musings in his book, ‘Thirukkural‘.

Excerpts From Thirukkural And Other Writings Of Thiruvalluvar

In ‘Thirukkural‘, the poet preaches the goodness of honesty, humility and compassion. To lead a meaningful life, one must know the importance of self-discipline, education and economic independence. His central virtue, and according to him, the foundation of all lives, was love and compassion for others. He truly believed that our attitude and behaviour for others must always rest on kindness and goodwill. Such a tenets and virtues would promise a fulfilling life.

Some of the couples from ‘Thirukkural‘ are:

“The wound that’s made by fire will heal, But the wound that’s made by tongue will never heal.”

“Just as the alphabet ‘A’ is the beginning of all letters, so also, God is the beginning for this universe.”

“Learn the Shastras completely and then act according to their injunctions.”

“The Anicha flower will fade by smelling, but guests are more sensitive if the hosts turn their faces a bit.”

“There is no greater wealth than Virtue, and no greater loss than to forget it.”

“The lotus’ stem is as long as the depth of water, So men’s height is just as great as their inner strength.”

“Death is like sleeping in the burial ground; birth is like waking in the morning.”

‘Thirukkural‘ is still a prominent book in Tamil literature, read and taught in the state. It is considered as the universal Bible. For his wise words and universalistic and timeless knowledge, Thiruvalluvar is honoured everyday in Tamil Nadu on the 15th or 16th of January.

So many of us have had the privilege of good night stories narrated by our grandparents. These night time stories were often filled with interesting myths and morals, and were a treat to the ears, weren’t they? Folktales and storytelling have been with us since forever. They were a major part of our childhood while growing up. Have you ever thought about the origins of folklores and storytelling in the Indian culture and their significance? The most basic understanding of the ‘folk’ that we’ve is that they’re related to ‘traditional’ and ‘native’, and sometimes ‘rural’. However, folklores and storytelling have a more nuanced and diverse background to them, especially in the Indian context, considering that the country is rife with so many different traditions, lifestyles, and art.

Folklores And Storytelling: The Oral Traditions

Folklores and storytelling were oral traditions but thanks to literature, most of these folktales and stories are now recorded in written formats. Years and years of ancient myths, dramas, and rituals in the form of prose narratives have been preserved and carried forward from generations to generations. The posterity of India’s rich oral tradition could only be preserved because of all the scholars, saints and writers who wrote down these stories.

One of the widely read, known and loved tales we all must have read sometime in our childhood are the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Jataka tales of Buddhism, Panchatantras and Hitopadesha. These moralistic tales are built around expressions of strong self-reflections, righteousness, socio-political realities and deep insights. While these are the most famous and well known collection of tales, India, in fact, has diverse origins of stories and folktales, from distinct communities and tribes.

The Many Indian States And Their Many Legends

India is one of the most diverse countries in the world. Its regions have produced numerous stories revolving around a vast and broad array of themes, myths, rituals, and cultures. Most pertinent is the link between folktales and culture, which is very strong since stories from these culture form the very essence of their heritage and identities. Of course the tales from the north India have a different origin and cultural angles. Let’s take a look at some of folklores from different regions of India.

The folklores from Uttar Pradesh, for instance, were around the wisdom and wise words of maulvi sahbs. Meanwhile, Kerala folklores are a celebration of its origin, religion, festivities and temples. The legends of ‘Mahabali’ and ‘Parasurama’ are two of the most read stories from Kerala’s lands. The folktales of Andhra Pradesh are even more profound and interesting since they’re centred around family, and how the family create certain roles for the two genders: male and female. Most of these stories depict a heavy emphasis on women as the primary decision makers of the household. West Bengal, a state which has produced several artists, writers and painters, is of course a land filled with tales of faraway lands, of the kings and queens, demons, the evil and good, with most of these aimed at imparting a moral lesson.

When it comes to North East India, one must remember the geographical location of the seven states. These states are the home to pristine nature, tribal communities, biodiversity, and its socio-political girth. Naturally, North Eastern states have had a close relation with its surrounding nature, and a large number of these folktales are in fact a reflection of this interdependence of humans on its environment. These communities, through their legends and tales, communicate their wisdom on the conservation of nature, on livelihood, and culture.

Preserving Cultures And Traditions Through Folklores

As mentioned earlier, folktales have been preserved over time through oral traditions. They were passed down from generations to generations through vocal narrating from the mouth. Understandably, ‘listening’ became one of the core activities of the folktales tradition. This imparting of stories, myths, legends, rituals, was an attempt at entertainment, of course, but more importantly strengthening the core values of their culture, history and heritage. The stories shared amidst a community resolved to create a shared sense of common history and traditions.

It’s not even the stories or the legends they narrate but the way they narrate these stories. For instance, ‘Kathakalakshepam’, which are stories with anecdotes, mostly in Sanskrit, Hindi and Tamil, are narrated along with music and dance. In Andhra Pradesh, folktales are narrated along with beating a drum. This drum is called a ‘Burra’, and, hence, the folk narratives in the state are referred to as ‘Burra Katha’. Meanwhile in Tamil Nadu, storytelling has always been accompanied with a bow-like stringed instrument. This holistic expression of art forms through music and dance is also what constitutes a major chunk of a community’s culture.

Folktales are the connecting thread between the palatial past and the boundless present. A lot of campaigns and efforts have been rolled out to preserve folklores through other mediums other than written records. UNESCO categorized ‘Folklores’ as Intangible Heritage Culture under category of oral history in 2003. Folklores have been adapted into numerous performing arts like folkdances, folk paintings and murals, to maintain this ancient oral tradition in a more nuanced way. Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan, Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala, or the Chhau dance, based on tales of Mahabharata and Ramayana, performed by tribal population of Jharkhand and West Bengal, are some of the IHC categories through which the myths and legends of the past have still been kept alive.

The thing about documentation is that it is privy to destruction. History, records, stories—their preservation is abundant in all societies, but in all societies there are running powers of manipulation as such that the narrative carried in them is blurred from wrong to right, truth to lies, and the reality is all but lost. It is here then that the importance of oral tales is recognised the most. Like a thread passed down from generation to generation, they bind people together and protect their truths. Because the things embedded in oral traditions—from language to the stories they tell, from memory to history—nurture connections within communities, affirming their identities against a backdrop of evolving social realities.

This realisation became the very essence of the conversation I had with a friend, Aiman. She grew up and lives in Kashmir, who too has listened to and relied on stories for purposes that have gone beyond the norm of entertainment alone. In Kashmir, this tradition called luk kath, the people’s talk, Aiman says, is as lively as ever, a breathing, relatable entity within which there’s a space to find belongingness. A token of remembrance that she, like many others, can cling to so as to never feel lost in their own home.

The Oral Tales Of Kashmir: Stories, Folk Ballads And More

Aftaab and Zoon, the sun and the moon; the mountains and rivers have all been part of the oral tales in
Kashmir, giving life to them and, in turn, rooting them to the things of the land. Like the legend of Nagrai and Heemal, which Aiman narrated for me in bits and pieces, a folk ballad with little similarity to Shakespearan Romeo and Juliet, or Laila Majnu. This tragic love story of the Serpent King, Nagrai and Princess Heemal, finds memorabilia in a river spring in a small park near the town Shopian. The tale used to be one of the many stories that comprised Aiman’s childhood, fond memories of chilly winter nights, where she would huddle together with her family and listen to her elders narrating the stories they too must have been similarly told.

These stories, like those made-up for children, come with a lot of animal imagery, ghosts and demons, scary wolf-like creatures called bram bram chok or wan mohniyu, a powerful, hairy human-like creature with long nails who is said to wander in forests. Female figures of witches, or daens, too are abundant, one of the kind being Rantas, a seductress witch with her feet turned backwards, known to eat the hearts of men. Of course, like all old things, they too have some problematic tropes running, misogyny and patriarchy being the one of many.

While there are also tales meant to teach obedience, and some others, morality. But like all interesting things, these folktales have served the primary purpose of nourishing imagination, the reason which perhaps for Aiman too fuelled her later fascination and reliance on literature—the lucky instance of interest that led to us becoming acquaintances in the first place. But there’s more to it, there’s also curiosity. In the narration of these stories, she found the space to learn the habit of questioning, the what and why of the way things are. She expressed how these questions, in time, became more important than they really seem, because learning to ask questions, of why did it happen and why is it happening, became specifically relevant to the social and political developments surrounding Kashmiris.

Dapaan: The Significance Of The Oral Tradition

Dapaan is the word for ‘it is said’ or ‘they say’ in Kashmiri, an expression with which all stories are begun, for myths or legends which have no identifiable source. In the present situations of constant uncertainties in the state fuelled by government regulated informational blockade, the word that invoked the idea of fiction has also taken a new form. Dapaan as a harbinger of fearful events and anxieties, plays its part, as news and rumours, said and heard beginning with the word ‘dapaan’, make their way into everyday lives.

In telling me stories from her childhood and those she heard in those days, Aiman stressed how for her, her home has always been the paradise on earth. Memories of the stories, for instance, cannot forget the contexts in which they were told. There are some stories that impress a metaphor for occupied Kashmir, like that of the man who travels on a donkey while carrying all the load on his own head. He does so to not burden the animal he is travelling on, but in his ignorance doesn’t realise how the weight is ultimately being put on the donkey while the man assumes he is being kind to the animal by keeping the load on himself. These little things of everyday life then become an expression that absorbs and speaks of the nature of things. In the same vein also run proverbs, like Garah wandai gara sasah, garah neraha ne zah, (‘O home, I would sacrifice a thousand houses on you and will never leave you’) or asav ne, te lasav kith paeth (‘How will we live, if we don’t laugh’). The connectedness drawn from these pieces of oral culture are owed to the way they have been passed through generations, where that which everybody has heard comes to hold the value of truth. It has stood the grounds of time, and so it comes to stand against erasure.

Bhand Pather And Ladi Shah: Other Forms Of Oral Tradition

And outside this household of folk stories, there lie other oral traditions which have played similar roles, like that of Bhand Pather and of Ladi Shah. Bhand Pather, which is now a declining art form of folk theatre, is based on satirical drama drawn from mythologies and social realities. The unwritten scripts of these dramas have been passed on in families, where their performances invoke cultural roots often infused with political commentaries and humour. Bhand Pather is a very old tradition of drama but has served newer purposes of educating and informing masses, spreading awareness of the many issues that people did not have an easy access to talk or know about. And so, the political representation made its way into folklore not directly, but through subtleness, wit, and sarcasm. In that what they did, and this is what Aiman believes, is not just help in shaping opinions of the people but also strengthening them, where the problems concerning entire communities could find a space to be conveyed and shared.

Another form bridging the accessibility of information like Bhand Pather is Ladi Shah, the Kashmiri song ballads full of melody and humour. The performer, also called the ladi shah, comes with an instrument called dhukar, singing songs that communicate and comment on socio-political matters of day-to-day life. It was only fairly recently that Kashmir got its first female ladi shah in fact, twenty-five year old Syed Areej Safvi. The oral culture, therefore, is still evolving into relatable entities; where people like herself, Aiman suggests, are also finding their own responsibility to know more about it and to carry it forward. This remembrance and recognition, through multiple traditions like Bhand Pather and Ladi Shah, are their own history, a way to protect their roots.

Aiman’s own understanding over the importance of folk stories has been this alone, also the reason she was willing to share it with me. Attempts at surviving and preserving the aspects of their culture are an important part of the community. Stories, the oral tradition of Kashmir and culture surrounding them come to form a language of their own in all societies like this then, with their own depths and necessity.