Kathakali is a classical dance-drama from the State of Keralam. The art blends painted faces, epic storytelling and martial arts together. It remains a living cultural epic, rooted in the temple traditions, yet evolving into the modern theatre. Kathakali originated in the 16^th and 17^th century. This dance form developed from the earlier temple and folk arts, like Krishnanattam and Ramanattam. The King of Kottarakara created new plays based on the Ramayana. These further evolved into Kathakali. The word itself combines Katha (story) and Kali (performance/play).

Roots, Royals and Patronage

Other classical dances were rooted mainly in the temples. Kathakali flourished in the royal courts and temple forecourts. This made sacred stories accessible to the common people. By the 19^th century, the colonial disruptions weakened the royal patronage. Small troupes (Kali Yogams) and Namboodiri families kept the art alive until modern revival movements. It fuses painted faces, epic storytelling, martial arts and music. This enables the art into a single ‘total theatre’.  Its elaborate costumes and powerful facial expressions are famous. It has the ability to transform myths into living performances.

Kathakali is Unique

It depicts painted faces as symbolic language. The makeup (chutti) uses colours to instantly identify the characters. Green is for noble heroes, red for villains, black for hunters/demons and yellow for saints. This visual code makes Kathakali instantly recognizable. Unlike other classical dances, Kathakali dramatizes the entire episodes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas. That is why it is  also considered as the living epic.  Movements draw from Kalaripayattu, the martial art from the State of Keralam. This gives Kathakali its athletic dynamism and combat-like choreography. The performers are trained for the years to master nine facial expressions (navarasas) – love, valour, anger, fear, wonder, peace etc., creating emotional depth unmatched in the other forms of art.

Kathakali is Famous

The elaborate costumes and headgear enable it. Towering crowns, layered garments and intricate jewellery make Kathakali spectacular to watch. The grandeur of the art mesmerizes the audiences worldwide. Keralam’s kings and temple festivals support it. Kathakali became a ‘golden art form’ (suvarna kala). It is deeply connected into the cultural identity of Keralam

History Hides the Forgotten Layers

These are the royal rivalry, temple innovation and community resilience. Kathakali’s fame is built on centuries of survival against decline, colonial disruption and cultural shifts. In the 17^th century, the King of Kottarakara invited the Krishnanattam troupe from Calicut. They refused and therefore, the King of Kottarakara created Ramanattam, based on the Ramayana. Later on this, evolved into Kathakali. It proved that the art can emerge from the political rivalry also. Early performances used Sanskrit, which limited access for the commoners. The King of Kottarakara introduced Malayalam lyrics. This made Kathakali accessible to common people in the temple forecourts. The Curtain Ritual – Thiranukuu was incorporated. The characters were introduced from behind a satin curtain (Tereshiela). This dramatic reveal pioneered in the 17^th century. It gave Kathakali its theatrical suspense.

Powerful Innovations Create Improvements

The survival of the art is through patronage by the families. By the 19^th century, colonial rule and loss of royal patronage nearly destroyed Kathakali. Small troupes (Kali Yogams) and Namboodiri families, like Olappamanna sustained it for 300 years. This kept the art alive. The artists also introduced musical innovations.Vettathu Raja introduced two singers, cymbals (chengila) and the temple drum (chenda). These innovations gave Kathakali its powerful rhythm and soundscape.

The people often overlook the cultural layers. The main part of the training is in the monsoon.  The performers rehearsed during the monsoon season of Keralam. This linked art to nature’s rhythm. There is a shared community ownership for Kathakali. Unlike Bharatanatyam (temple-centric), the courts and villages share belongingness for the art of Kathakali. This bridges the gap between the elite and common audiences. Eye Exercises (Netra Abhinaya) are of utmost importance.  The performers are trained to control  their eye movements. This is a skill unique to Kathakali.

These facts show Kathakali as tool of political resistance, cultural democratization and community resilience. The art’s fame in the modern days consists of grand costumes, painted faces or epic narratives. However, it rests on centuries of adaptation and survival. Kathakali is the living epic of the State of Keralam. It is shaped by forgotten kings, families and rituals.

Artisan’s voice:

Dr. Ramakrishnan, is a sixth-generation Kathakali artist. He is the secretary of a 43-year-old ‘Natishala Vidyam’. His main idea about the art is “Take the story out.” He emphasized on what it truly means to become a Kathakali artist. He explains how an art form survives, transforms and struggles across generations. It is not merely about performance, but also about the lives lived beneath the paint. He speaks about understanding how the natural pigments are ground and mixed for makeup. Kathakali also traces the mythological epics that the body comes to narrate.

Kalamandalam Ravi Kumar

A Kathakali – vesham teacher named ‘Kalamandalam Ravi Kumar’, expressed his views “Kathakali is an artwork based on Hindu legends. The biggest specialty of Kathakali is that is synthesizes music, vocal performers and choreography. The hand and facial gestures express these stories. Facial and eye movements are very important in conveying expressions in Kathakali. So, the control of eyes is developed through practice.  Students who attend that Kathakali school are 13 years old.  It is approximately 12 years of study. Costumes and make up are beyond imagination. It takes about 4 hours to prepare for the performance. Traditional art forms help in cultivating the culture within us.”

Nelliyode Vasudevan Namboodiri

Eminent Kathakali actor ‘Nelliyode Vasudevan Namboodiri’ has about six decades of experience in the art of Kathakali. His interventions in the age-old dance drama are flavoured with great intensity of thought. He specializes in thadi (beard) characters. His innovations in the make-up or performance have led to the development of his signature style. This has consistently won critical acclaim. In conversation with V. Kaladharan, he talks about “his beginnings in the field and how he came to perform thadi veshams”. He says that “his borrowing of certain elements from Kutiyattam led to the enrichment of his thadi characters”. He also talks about “his innovations in various aspects of the art form, like the attam, costume and make-up”.

A renowned Kathakali artist from Chemancheri.

Chemancheri Kunhiraman Nair is a renowned Kathakali artist from Chemancheri. He completed 95 years in 2013. Chemancheri Kunhiraman Nair spent the last eighty years in learning Kathakali and teaching it. He has done the role of Krishna alone more than a thousand times. The Government of India awarded him with the fourth highest civilian honour of the Padma Shri in 2017.

The modern conflict

The modern conflict in Kathakali lies in its adaptations to contemporary realities. It was once restricted to the male performers. The art now embraces inclusivity with women artists stepping onto the stage. Global troupes expand its reach by reinterpreting Shakespearean plays and even Christian narratives. This proves Kathakali’s versatility and universal appeal. At the same time, its deep roots remain visible through links to the Keralam’s older theatre art form, Koodiyattam. UNESCO recognizes as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. Together, these shifts highlight the tension between preserving tradition and embracing modern transformation.

Kathakali dramatizes Hindu epics.

The artists perform the stories of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana through gestures, expressions and rhythmic footwork. Painted faces and towering headgear symbolize heroes, villains, hunters and saints. This transforms performers into living myths. The movements draw strength from Keralam’s martial art Kalaripayattu. This gives Kathakali its athletic dynamism. The music in Sanskritised Malayalam with drums and cymbals, fuses sound and gesture into total theatre.

The Keralam Kalamandalam, founded in the 20^th century, saved Kathakali from the decline and trained generations of performers. School for Kathakali – Keralam Kalamandalam – http://kalamandalam.ac.in/

Some artists have played significant roles in preserving and promoting the tradition globally.

Few of the most influential Kathakali performers from Kerala include:

Balakrishnan Nair, Sadanam Puthiya Veettil Balakrishnan popularly known as Sadanam Balakrishnan  popularized the art internationally.

The legendary actor-manipulator G. M. V. S. Nair, is known for his innovative character portrayals.

Kottakkal Sivaraman is celebrated for his mastery in the portrayal of divine roles and for training numerous successful artists.

Kalamandalam Gopi is renowned for his emotive performances and contributions to choreography. These artists have enriched Kathakali with unique interpretations, enhanced training methods, and

Some contacts who support and promote Kathakali:

https://www.instagram.com/yakshagana.kathakali_artist_pg?igsh=MWoyZHhnZjZpb3YyNw==

https://www.instagram.com/_.story_of_dance._?igsh=MWRhNjBwZTR0bTQ5eA==

https://www.instagram.com/kerala.kalamandalam?igsh=ZjRrM3d3a25jZjc3

Check out our latest article “Bandhani, Dupatta or Kolhapuri Chappals Crossing Borders Rule“

The attire and accessories of India are fascinating. The people around the world are excited to wear it, use it and also, sometimes claim it as their own. It is a feeling of pride and nostalgia, when we share our culture across borders. The very knowing that eminent brands and people are interested in Indian attire is exciting. Be it the ‘Jhumka’, the Bandhej skirt, the dupatta or the Kolhapuri Chappal. When tradition strides onto the runway, borders dissolve into fabric and rhythm. This could be a cultural collision more than a fashion headline.

The Bandhani Skirt, well known only to swish in desert winds, now has a place in the international settings and markets. Indians wear it casually as an everyday attire. It is intriguing that big brands and huge prices should be suddenly attached to it. The dupatta rebranded as ‘Scandinavian Scarves’ in a clash of heritage and modernity. Kolhapuri Chappals, humble yet iconic, march unapologetically across global catwalks. These claim space, where they were unheard of. They receive attention, where they were insignificant. These arts and crafts took a prominent place in the fashion industry and fashionable lifestyle. Unintentionally, these situations gave way to local artisans of India to become popular. The sad part is that they are not given the due credit, value or acknowledgement for it.  

Tradition Reinvents, Creativity Triumphs

This is not just about clothes. It is about identity, migration and the audacity of tradition to reinvent itself. The Indian artisans were confined to local settings all along. The runway becomes a borderless stage, where controversy sparks, but creativity triumphs. The so called ‘Scandinavian Scarf Set is actually common to all the Indians. Though the ‘Dupatta’ is now renamed as a ‘Scandinavian Scarf’, the  Indians used it all along in the various settings. It looks royal and has an honoured place in the Indian society.

The Indians have been wearing it for centuries to go to a temple, distribute prasadam and in all respectable situations and occasions. It is a part of every culture from north to south and from east to west of the country. Dupattas are peculiar and unique to the Indian traditions. It is a part of everyday dress for most of the Indians. The dupatta is part of the identity of the people.  It has a deep significance with every custom in India. Just rebranding it, cannot alter the centuries of old connections the Indians have with it. There are numerous regional songs and iconic scenes in the movies and social media with the ‘dupatta’.  The people always flaunt it proudly, across all the stages

Attention Amplifies Roots: Rebranding Only Highlights Origin

The Bandhej or Bandhani Lehenga are typical and authentic. It stands as a living emblem for the Indian culture. The Bandhani lehenga is intricate tie‑dye patterns that cannot be easily replicated with mere imitation or rebranding. It is a technique that carries generational skill, artistry, patience and cultural meaning. Like Shakespeare’s rose, “whose fragrance endures regardless of its name”, rebranding cannot erase authenticity. Even when it is marketed under new labels, the essence remains rooted in the Indian tradition. These designs remind us that the heritage resists dilution. True craft speaks for itself, no matter how it is presented. The people, who were otherwise unaware, become aware of these arts, only because of the attention brands give it.

Forgotten Historical Fact

India is iconic in unique fashion. A legendary peacock dress made history. Kishan Chand’s workshop, in India created panels of embroidered zardozi. They assembled these zardozi embroidered panels in the dress. Lady Curzon wore it during the 1903, Delhi Durbar. It is an exquisite piece of fine art that can probably never be replicated. It is special as its fabric is covered with zardozi embroidery with lots of shiny beetle wings. The zardozi embroidery was typical to the Indian culture. All these come together to create this epic feather design of the peacock. This dress is a stunning display of the Indian craftsmanship and cultural artistry.

Voice of the People

Soha Ali Khan https://youtube.com/shorts/XpYsx3JulVk?si=Od4iz8WQbfwqRyQH

Soha Ali Khan has voiced out a beautiful perspective. She pointed out the stark difference between inspiration and cultural appropriation. “Fashion does borrow, art does borrow, it should evolve and culture should travel. And honestly shouldn’t we feel proud that all the things that we have grown up within India are now strutting a global runway” She asked a question if these luxury brands were suddenly in love with all the things of India. The issue was giving credit to the crafts, the origins and the artisans. The most important point is “Did they share the value?” Borrowing without acknowledgment or consent or benefit to the culture from that it comes from in not appropriate. The culture should travel to inspire, but it should not erase the people, who created it, rather it should elevate them.

Pippuveendran on the Youtube Handle https://youtube.com/shorts/o4bR0CQSEng?si=slbu2zDrHWYApxfi

 Pippuveendran states that calling a dupatta by another name “is not only inaccurate but also disrespectful” The difference he points out is that using them is fine. Don’t try to claim them as their own, don’t try to rebrand them. Show appreciation and respect for other cultures. Use the fashion but give credit, where it is due. This would give pride and a sense of harmony to the origins and the originators.

Modern conflict Wrapped in Itself.

Social media is widespread with visibility in each and every corner of the world. Media has an enormous amount of database to prove these origins. It is impossible to erase such a vast collections that point to authenticity.  Artists share designs inspired by the Indian crafts, weaving tradition into modern aesthetics. Yet, in this digital arena, authenticity faces constant scrutiny. All forms of sources of history contain the streaks, showing origins of these arts.

Copying without credit sparks outrage, and they cannot hide cultural origins. The conflict lies in the ownership. People ask the question as to who can claim artistry, when heritage belongs to many? In today’s connected world, silence about sources is impossible. Accountability travels faster than the craft itself. It is impossible to claim credit of something and go unnoticed in the modern days. An attempt of such means to overwrite or even alter centuries of the Indian history.

Cultural Insight

The public perception is now clearer. The audiences are more vocal, aware and quicker to call out these imitations. Giving credit to origins highlights overlooked, ignored, and neglected artists. It helps acknowledge the left out communities. Social media raises awareness about origins and background. Artists constantly share designs inspired by the Indian heritage, arts or crafts.

Power in Unity

When we are collectively aware and do our bit to protect our culture, we will be successful. We could amicably strive to upkeep our heritage and not filtrate our traditions through negligence. When the communities unite to protect culture, heritage thrives. Collective awareness strengthens traditions. They protect the arts and culture. they ensure they lose nothing through negligence or careless attitudes. Each person’s effort becomes a safeguard, preserving rituals, crafts and stories for the future generations. Success lies in shared responsibility. When all of us strive together, authenticity endures and heritage remains unbroken.

Check out our latest article on “Woven Divine Threads: Sacred Silk of South Indian Temples” here!

Silk of South India carries devotion and beauty. The Temples shaped the art of weaving through their rituals, offerings and sacred meaning. Threads honoured Gods, each pattern echoed myth and each donation sustained artisans. These divine fabrics became the living heritage. These bind worship, community and craft into one sacred tradition.

The Temple rituals, donations and religious symbolism shaped silk weaving traditions in the South India. This created demands for silk for divine adornment. It shaped weavers’ craft with sacred precision. Donations funded looms and thereby sustained the communities. Religious symbolism infused patterns, linking fabric to myth and devotion. Silk weaving thrived as temples elevated cloth into living prayer.

Sacred Silk Traditions for the Gods

Certain silks are ‘temple‑approved’. Temple silks embody purity, chosen for rituals that demand sanctity. Priests approve fabrics that meet sacred standards of colour, texture and ritual use. These silks become offerings more than cloth. They carry devotion directly to the divine. The weavers breathe life into the myths. These translate Gods and legends into shimmering designs. Each motif tells a sacred story. It binds fabric to faith. Through their artistry, looms become storytellers. The artisans weave devotion into every thread and pattern. When rituals modernize, it reshapes silk traditions. This blends heritage with evolving practices.  The weavers adapt designs, balancing timeless symbolism with contemporary needs. In this way, silk remains living heritage, resilient yet responsive to the needs of changing patterns of worship.

South Indian temple silks carry forgotten layers of history

South Silk consisted of taxation, migration and myth. It shaped weaving traditions in Kanchipuram, Arani, and Mysore. These stories reveal how spirituality and politics intertwined. Yet it sustains sacred craftsmanship. These are as if woven for the Gods. Kanchipuram has history of loom taxes and Temple Economy. Chola inscriptions mention loom taxes called tari‑arai. The Temples collected dues, yet often waived charges, protecting the artisans. Silk became both sacred offerings and an economic lifeline.

Arani depicts migration and community weaving. Arani’s strength grew from migrating Devanga and Saligar weavers. They settled near Temples, weaving cloth for rituals. Collective weaving sustained families. Temple patronage transformed silk into livelihood or sacred duty. Mysore silk shows royal patronage and adaptation.This fabric thrived under royal support, especially during Krishna Deva Raya’s reign. Kings regarded silk as temple adornment. Later, modernization reshaped its patterns. Royal legacy preserved silk’s ritual prestige. Silks were taxed commodities, mythic inheritances, royal gifts and temple offerings. They werewoven threads binding economy, faith and artistry across centuries.

Mythic Origins and Symbolism

Legends claim Kanchi weavers descend from Saga Markanda, the divine weaver. He supposedly created tissue from lotus fibre. This myth reinforced silk’s sacred aura. It made weaving itself an act of worship. A forgotten symbolism is present with temple motifs in cloth. Designs often mirrored temple gopurams, peacocks and deities. These motifs carried spiritual meaning. They embedded architecture into fabric. Though people forget it today. Every sari was once a portable temple.

Artisan’s Voices

The Kanjivaram Sari is an auspicious one. A national award winner- Mr B Krishnamurthy keeps this auspicious association alive. He started learning how to weave at tender age of 15. He is the master weaver. Mr. B Krishnamurthy has won national award for his hand woven Kanjivaram Sari. He draws the design digitally and then weaves the saree. The most impressive part about this master weaver is that he catalogued 5015 designs. These are for references. When people show interest in handloom on 60 inches wide and 25 meters long silk.  

A textile expert Sabita Radhakrishna states as under:

“Because of its intricacy of weaving and the labour that goes into it and three people sit at a loom and work on it. It’s no wonder then that the Kanchipuram Saree today costs something like over one lakh Rupees”. A designer named Jayaraja Shivam who grew up in Arani. Three generations of his family are part of saree making industry.  His father was a weaver. His grandfather was a retailer, who later worked in a dying unit. He created a poem on a saree. Artisans used Bharatanatyam mudras as stills and placed on the border of the saree. They used the 33 designs, that were already available in a book that his master had in his very own library. The master handed it over to him and that gave him the ideas.

In Jayaraja Shivam’s words- “The Jacquard boxes helped overcome limitations. These proved to be a great blessing, we should be thankful to Joseph Marie Jacquard for that. Sir Siva Kumar from RMKV gave me an opportunity to create Bharathivar’s song on a saree. They have the Pown R&D unit here in Arani. Since they wanted to create something new for diwali, they decided to depict Bharathiyar’s poem-CHINNANCHIRU KILIYAE KANNAMMA on a silk saree.”

Srinivasa Sharma, Assistant Director of the Sericulture Department in Ramanagara states about the Mysore Silk – “Here in Ramanagara lies Asia’s Largest cocoon market. Everyday the place sells more than 40 or 50 tons of cocoons. More than 300 retailers actively participate for farming the cocoons”

An artisan named, Mubarak Pasha, the Proprietor, Silk Unit, Ramanagara states “Here the artisan weaves saree using the warp process. The artisans shape the fabric gradually. The artisans set the the warp threads into the loom. Once woven it undergoes colouring, bleaching and intricate designing. This transforms plain silk threads into the timeless elegance of Mysore silk saree”

Tradition v. Modernization – The Silk Conflict

One modern conflict surrounding silk in South Indian temples is the tension between traditional handloom weaving and machine‑made imitations. Temples, artisans and devotees debate authenticity, affordability and the survival of heritage. The Handloom silks from Kanchipuram, Arani and Mysore carry centuries of temple sanctity. The priests insist only these fabrics embody ritual purity. Artisans who weave each saree see it as prayer. The power loom and synthetic silks fill the markets. These offer cheaper options. Devotees often choose affordability, while artisans struggle to survive. Counterfeit “temple silks” dilute trust. This threatens livelihoods and weakening heritage. The Temples face pressure to adapt rituals. Some accept modern silks; others reject them. The debate questions whether machine‑made cloth can carry divine blessing. The conflict is not about fabric alone. It is about authenticity, livelihood and spiritual integrity. Sacred silk stands at a crossroads, where faith, economy and tradition must negotiate survival.

Cultural Insight About Temple Silks of South India

Kanchipuram fondly referred to “The City of Thousand Looms”. It is rightly so asKanchipuram silks glow with Temple blessings. The rituals demand vibrant cloth and weavers answer with divine precision. These saris contain 40 % silver threads and 0.5% gold. Each sari carries myth, weaving Gods into shimmering patterns that honour centuries of devotion.

Arani is a town 132 kms west from Chennai. It is in the district of Thiruvanamalai in Tamil Nadu. Arani is one of the famous silk weaving hubs, the source of silk sarees to famous retailers like Nalli, Pothy’s and RMKV.  The weaving of silk sari that began with only two families, which has grown about 25,000 family of weavers.  Together, they bring the craft forward. Arani – “The Looms of Living Heritage”. This is because Arani’s weavers sustain traditions through temple offerings. Temple structures inspire the designs. The previous generations pass on these designs to the subsequent generations from the time immemorial. Nowadays, nature inspires the weavers. Donations fuel looms and the sacred motifs guide their artistry. Every thread becomes prayer that binds community and craft into a fabric of faith.

Mysore silk – “The Golden Threads of Adaptation”. Initially Mysore silk was for the royal family and the armed forces. The Maharaja of Mysore Province established KSIC in the year 1912 by . His name was Naalwadi Krishnaraj Wadiar. Later in the year 1980 the silk weaving factory handed over to Karnataka Silk Industries Corporation Ltd. (KSIC). There are presently two silk factories. The first one being in MYSURU. This is the country’s oldest silk manufacturing unit. The second factory is located in T. Narasarapura.Mysore silks reflect evolving rituals. Modern worship reshapes patterns, yet heritage endures. The weavers balance timeless symbolism with contemporary needs, keeping silk alive as the living heritage.

Hope in the Horizon

The Government of India actively protects sacred silk traditions in Kanchipuram, Arani and Mysore through GI tags and regulations. Kanchipuram silk sarees hold GI status. This safeguards authenticity and prevents counterfeit sales. Exhibitions highlight temple motifs. Subsidies and training programmes help the artisans compete with power-loom imitations. Arani silk thrives through cooperative societies, supported by the State programmes, ensuring fair wages for weaving families and communities. The Government aid provides jacquard machines to over 375 artisans, strengthening community weaving.  The Temple festivals showcase Arani silks, sustaining ritual demand and cultural identity. Mysore silk gained Karnataka’s first GI tag in 2005. This secured its heritage.

The Government runs Asia’s largest cocoon market in Ramanagara, stabilizing raw silk supply. The Mysore Silk Factory modernizes production, while retaining temple‑approved weaving standards. Nationally, the Central Silk Board oversees the research, training and technology transfer for silk production. Export promotion positions the temple silks as the heritage textiles worldwide. Subsidies support mulberry cultivation, raw silk production and artisan cooperatives. These steps preserve authenticity, sustain livelihoods and keep temple‑linked motifs central to weaving traditions.

Instagram Handles of Some Artisans

https://www.instagram.com/kanchipuram_silk_saree102?igsh=MTM2bTc4a2tkMGhnbw==

https://www.instagram.com/kanchipuram_silk_saree_weaver?igsh=MTlwZXU2dG9iem9vMA==

https://www.instagram.com/arani___silks_sarees_?igsh=MXAweTBoNWgxYXk0NQ==

https://www.instagram.com/arni_silk_sarees_?igsh=MXhhOW9iZ25tYTkwcQ==

https://www.instagram.com/pure_mysore_silk?igsh=MXg1bGFtMzN2a3Rlag==

https://www.instagram.com/mysore_silks_by_rathnamsilks?igsh=MTVnOW1zbGo5enE3Mw==

Check out our latest article “Threads of the Desert: Bandhani and Kutch Embroidery” here!

India’s encounter with psychoanalysis stands out as a striking example of how Western psychological theory and Eastern philosophical traditions can collide, mix and then create something unique. Psychoanalysis didn’t just show up during colonial times and get copied. It got picked apart, rethought, and repurposed to fit Indian society. At the heart of this whole story is Girindrasekhar Bose. His letters back and forth with Freud mark one of the earliest and most meaningful psychoanalytic conversations between Europe and South Asia.

When psychoanalysis arrived in India in the early 1900s, it entered a world where ancient spiritual traditions went hand-in-hand with the realities of colonial modernity. The people who adopted Freud’s ideas weren’t content to apply them as-is. Indian scholars and therapists twisted and blended psychoanalytic thinking with local notions about the self, inner life and human behaviour. Out of all that, a distinctly Indian approach to psychoanalysis was born.

This article looks back at how psychoanalysis took root in India, spotlights the thinkers who brought it to life, traces the emergence of institutions, and asks why psychoanalytic thinking still matters in India today.

The Arrival of Psychoanalysis in India

Psychoanalysis began to take hold in India during the early decades of the 20th century, a time when the country was buzzing with change, politically, socially and intellectually, thanks to British rule. Cities like Calcutta (now Kolkata) had become hotbeds of education and debate, with Indian thinkers wrestling with European science, psychology and political ideas.

Amid all this, Girindrasekhar Bose found himself drawn to Freud’s work. The unconscious fascinated him. He started writing to Freud in 1921 and kept up that exchange for years. Their letters are still considered a milestone in the history of psychoanalysis worldwide.

Bose was obviously impressed by Freud, but he didn’t accept everything without question. He filtered these new ideas through Indian philosophy and culture. That level of thoughtful engagement paved the way for an Indian school of psychoanalysis that wasn’t just a copy of the West.

Girindrasekhar Bose: The Pioneer of Indian Psychoanalysis

Whenever the story of Indian psychoanalysis gets told, Girindrasekhar Bose is at the centre. He was a psychiatrist from Bengal, intensely curious, deeply thoughtful, who basically kick-started the field in India.

In 1922, Bose founded the Indian Psychoanalytical Society. It was the first group of its kind in Asia.

Thanks in large part to Bose’s ideas and his ongoing dialogue with Freud and other European analysts, the Society quickly earned a reputation well beyond India. Freud even praised Bose for his originality, despite their disagreements.

One thing that sets Bose apart is his refashioning of Freud’s theories to fit the Indian context. Where Freud zeroed in on repression and inner conflict, Bose liked to explore tensions and dualities, the push and pull of desire and how opposites keep each other in check. His work grew out of both psychoanalytic theory and Indian philosophical questions about what the self is, what we want and how we know. Because of Bose, psychoanalysis took root as more than an imported idea. It became something capable of real cross-cultural relevance.

Psychoanalysis and Colonial India

The emergence of psychoanalysis in India can’t be separated from what was going on during the colonial era. Indian intellectuals were grappling with questions about identity, cultural independence and what it meant to be modern.

Western psychological concepts accompanied the institutions that the British built, such as universities, hospitals, and medical schools. But Indian scholars didn’t just accept European ideas without a second thought. They reimagined those theories through older traditions, Hinduism, Buddhism and Indian philosophy.

Psychoanalysis, in particular, became a way for Indians to probe the clash between tradition and change, spirituality and science, the individual and the group. Dreams, symbols, inner conflict, these themes already had a place in Indian myths and philosophies. Psychoanalysis just gave them a new language, one that drew a lot of Indian thinkers in.

Carl Jung and Indian Thought

Jung’s influence in India became another story entirely. Unlike Freud, Jung was seriously interested in religion and symbolism and saw Eastern philosophy as a treasure trove for understanding the psyche. He came to India in 1937, absorbing everything from religious symbolism to meditation.

His theories on archetypes and the collective unconscious felt familiar to Indian scholars. They resonated with local ideas about collective memory and symbolic consciousness, so Jung’s work found a welcoming audience.

Even though Jungian ideas never really became dominant in India’s institutions, they started a dialogue, encouraging Indian thinkers to take a fresh look at the connections between analytical psychology and spiritual traditions.

The Growth of Indian Psychoanalysis

Bose planted the seeds and others made sure they grew. Over time, more clinicians and scholars adapted psychoanalytic ideas to fit Indian realities.

Sudhir Kakar is probably the most well-known name among today’s Indian psychoanalysts. He’s written extensively on how psychoanalysis intersects with myth, religion, sexuality and the everyday life of India. Through his work, Indian psychoanalysis found a global audience.

There are plenty of others too, Girishwar Misra, Sudhir Chandra, P. Gopalan, each exploring identity, trauma, colonial legacy and social change through a psychoanalytic lens.

The Role of the Indian Psychoanalytical Society

Since 1922, the Indian Psychoanalytical Society has remained the anchor for psychoanalytic training, practice and scholarship in India.

It’s been at the forefront of developing psychoanalytic education, offering training, supporting clinical research, publishing work, holding public lectures and keeping ties with the international psychoanalytic community.

Through all of this, the Society has tried to keep psychoanalytic thinking relevant by grounding it in the realities of Indian life. It has helped spread psychoanalytic ideas into psychiatry, literature, sociology and cultural studies.

Challenges Facing Psychoanalysis in India

For all its history and influence, psychoanalysis in India isn’t without hurdles.

Mental health stigma is still a huge problem. Many people are uneasy with the idea of long-term therapy or don’t fully trust it. Psychoanalysis, with its demand for deep and lengthy self-exploration, isn’t always understood or welcomed.

Next, there’s the problem of access: formal training in psychoanalysis is hard to come by, most programs are based in big cities and opportunities remain scarce.

Fitting classic psychoanalytic theories to Indian families and communities can be tricky too. Clinicians still wrestle with how to adapt those ideas to India’s huge diversity and unique social systems.

And then there’s the trend toward quick-fix therapies. Mental health services increasingly favour short-term, pragmatic therapy because of money and time pressures, which puts traditional psychoanalysis at a disadvantage.

The Future of Psychoanalysis in India

The way forward for psychoanalysis in India lies in its openness to change, without losing its depth. Psychologists are experimenting with new approaches that blend psychoanalysis with neuroscience, trauma research, mindfulness and local healing practices.

Big areas of new interest include cross-cultural psychoanalysis, postcolonial psychotherapy, homegrown therapeutic traditions and the ways psychology ties into spiritual life.

As conversations around mental health become more open in India, psychoanalysis can remain a powerful tool for making sense of identity, memories, trauma, desire and emotions in a world that’s constantly changing.

Psychoanalysis and India Today 

The story of psychoanalysis in India is, at heart, a story of east meeting west and something new taking shape in the process. Thanks to Girindrasekhar Bose and his exchanges with Freud, psychoanalysis in India grew into its own thing, shaped by colonialism, spirituality and a relentless urge to adapt.

Indian psychoanalysts didn’t stop at borrowing European theories; they took them apart and rebuilt them so they’d make sense for Indian lives. From the founding of the Indian Psychoanalytical Society in the 1920s to modern scholarship by figures like Sudhir Kakar, India has carved out a distinctive place in the global world of psychoanalysis.

This whole journey is proof that you can’t really understand the human mind from just one perspective. Indian psychoanalysis stands as a reminder that psychological ideas come alive when they’re let loose in different cultures, philosophies and ways of being human.

There’s this kind of sadness that’s easy to miss. It’s not about losing someone else. It’s about losing a piece of yourself. Nobody brings you casseroles. Nobody checks up on you. Still, if you look closely, you realize you’ve been to a lot of quiet funerals, your own.

We don’t always notice them right away. Sometimes it’s walking away from someone you thought you’d love forever. Sometimes it’s suddenly seeing that your old dream doesn’t fit anymore. Sometimes you just react differently to stuff that used to tear you up inside, it sneaks up on you.

A version of you is gone and  something new takes its place.

But endings, even the ones you need, have grief inside them.

Outgrowing Your Past Self

There was a time you gave your heart all the way to someone who didn’t know what to do with it. Letting go is more than just losing them. It’s grieving the version of you who clung to hope, who hung on, who believed.

That version sticks around for a while, hangs in the background and  when it fades, it deserves a nod. There was also the you who made excuses, squeezed yourself into places that never fit. Maybe you shudder when you think of them now, but there’s also something tender there. That version kept you safe in ways you couldn’t see at the time.

Healing Is Messy

Healing is all about letting those old versions go and  honestly, it’s not as glossy as the self-help books make it sound. It messes with your sense of self.

You wonder, “Who am I now, without those old defenses or attachments?”

It’s a weird kind of mourning. You’re both the one saying goodbye and  the one being left behind. We love celebrating growth, boundaries, strength, but we rarely linger on what it cost. That softness before you learned to protect yourself, that naive certainty before the world got complicated, that old simplicity. There were funerals in those too.

The Versions That Slip Away

The you who needed constant reassurance. The you who believed love meant staying no matter what. The you who thought you’d have to earn your worth.

They slip away, one at a time.

Even the ones you’re glad to leave behind deserve a moment. Healing isn’t just becoming someone new, it’s learning to say goodbye to what you’ve outgrown, with kindness.

Looking Back Without Blame

It’s easy to look back at yourself and wonder, “Why didn’t I leave sooner? How could I not see?” But that’s missing the point.

You did the best you could with what you knew. You weren’t weak. You were learning. And now, you’re here, built out of every piece of what you’ve been.

There’s something beautiful in these endings. Each old version taught you something. What you deserve, what you won’t put up with anymore, what matters most. They don’t completely vanish. They show up as memories, little echoes that shape who you are now.

Missing Your Old Self

Sometimes, you miss who you used to be, not because you wish to go back, but because it felt familiar. Maybe you loved more freely, trusted faster, worried less.

Missing them doesn’t mean you made a mistake. It means you’re human.

Growth and grief aren’t opposites, they’re tangled together. You can be proud and still feel a little ache for what you lost.

Honoring, Not Erasing

Maybe healing isn’t about shutting the door on old selves. Maybe it’s about honoring them.

Each version carried you somewhere, even if it was messy or imperfect. They did their job. Let them rest.

Think about it: you’ve lived through every version of yourself. You’ve left behind spaces and people that once felt permanent. You’ve changed in ways you couldn’t even imagine before.

That matters.

Making Room for Your Own Goodbyes

We don’t really pause to process these shifts. We jump to the next thing, the next chapter, without marking what ended.

What if you took a moment, even quietly, just to acknowledge it? Not a big, dramatic thing. Just a gentle nod. Something in you has shifted. A part’s finished its role.

You’re not who you were and  that’s okay.

Becoming, Again and Again

There’s something so deeply human about evolving. Shedding skins, even when it stings and  becoming, over and over, someone a little different.

Sometimes it feels like a series of small funerals, letting go again and again.

But those goodbyes aren’t just about loss, they’re also thanks. For the you who loved, endured, learned.

That version got you here.

Here you are, still growing, still changing. You’ll have more endings ahead, more versions to look back on with tenderness and distance. More quiet goodbyes no one else sees.

And that’s how it goes.

Each time, you keep what matters and leave the rest.

Not because you failed, not because you’re broken, but because you’re alive and you’re still moving.

So if becoming feels heavy, that makes sense.

You’re not just building yourself.

You’re letting go, too.

And both deserve space.

Maybe nobody else notices, maybe nobody else gets it, but you do.

You can honor those past selves.

You can thank them.

And you can let them rest.