Every civilization has its unique perspective on animals. They portrayed them through folktales, art, literature and sculptures, often as emblems of power and wisdom. For instance, the Romans saw animals as fierce creatures that needed to be killed or controlled for human survival, while the Greeks viewed them as symbols of power existing in a separate world. In contrast, ancient Indians viewed animals in a more positive light, as companions. Historically, Indians have believed that animals and humans can coexist, harmoniously. They are revered and respected, contributing to various aspects such as food, entertainment, trade, clothing and ecological balance. Therefore, animals became important symbols in Indian mythology and art, representing the powers and duties of deities. Specific animals like the lion and cow were closely associated with important figures such as Durga and Krishna. Archaeologists have studied these animal depictions to learn about the historical context of the sculptures. 

Lion (Simha) in Indian Mythology, Art and Architecture

Mythological Significance

In Indian religious architecture and literature, the lion has occupied a prominent position since the sixth century BCE. The Puranas tell the story of Narasimha, which is full of deep religious and philosophical meaning. The story says that the god Vishnu took the form of a half-man, half-lion to save Prahlāda and kill the demon Hiranyakaśipu. Narasimha is the most important animal deity in Hinduism. Temples honoring Narasimha are common in southern and central India. The most basic account of Narasimha’s incarnation is found in the Mahābhārata.

The early depictions of the lion in pre-Aryan Indian religious art portray the lion and goddess Durga together as an almost unstoppable force that even the gods feared. The iconic image of Durga riding a lion and defeating enemies is a common symbol in Vedic texts. This connects the realms of gods and humans in an ancient worldview.

The symbolism of the lion in Buddhist tradition has roots in ancient Mesopotamian civilization. Though traditionally linked to royalty, power and the sun, within Buddhism the lion is reimagined as a protector of peaceful teachings, even though it was historically associated with humans’ warlike domination of nature.

Artistic and Architectural Significance

The lion in Indian art often represents the male principle and the sun, symbolizing both royalty and the divine. The Sarnath Lion Capital, one of the Ashokan pillars, features four lions standing on a drum, each facing a different direction. This lion motif references the Buddha and symbolizes the royalty, leadership, power and sovereignty of King Ashoka. The lion is traditionally seen as the king of the forest, the most powerful and majestic of all animals, holding great significance in early Buddhist tradition. Lion figures can also be found guarding the entrances of Indian temples, signifying protection from evil and a welcoming of divine presence, as seen in many Shiva temples across Bengal.

Symbolism in Indian Art

Artists depict the lion as an ornamental feature and architectural element in Indian art and architecture. Researchers have conducted extensive studies on the various aspects of the goddess Durga in Indian mythology and religion, with scholars well-documenting her visual representations in Indian art and sculpture. Writers often associate the lion with her in Indian literature, art, and sculpture. Similarly, devotees consider Narasimha, the half-man, half-lion deity, one of the ten avatars or incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Historians trace the origins of Narasimha worship back to the ancient practice of lion worship in India. Archaeologists have found the oldest known representation of Narasimha in a panel at Kondamotu village, in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh.

In Indo-Persian art, the lion is a prominent symbol, depicted as a representation of power, strength, and royal authority. This reflects the cultural influences of both Persia and India. The lion holds an important place in royal imagery, often associated with leadership and bravery. This symbolism manifests in courtly art, with lions appearing in detailed miniature paintings, textile patterns and architectural designs. Additionally, the lion’s presence in Indo-Persian art carries spiritual meanings, symbolizing protective qualities and cosmic forces, particularly in depictions of mythical creatures like the lion-headed Simurgh that blend Persian and Indian artistic traditions.

Bull (Vrishabha/Nandi) in Indian Mythology, Art and Architecture

Mythological Significance

Nandi, the sacred bull, holds a revered place in Hinduism as the devoted vehicle and companion of Lord Shiva. It symbolizes eternal vigilance, meditation and receptivity. In every Shiva temple, one can find a sculpture of Nandi sitting in front of the sanctum sanctorum, facing the Shiva lingam. Though Nandi appears serene, the beliefs hold that he is always in a state of alertness, vitality, and strength, ever meditating.  

Artistic and Architectural Significance

In Indian culture, the bull holds immense artistic and architectural significance, symbolizing strength, power and fertility across various historical periods. Nandi is a prominent feature in Shaivite temples, often placed directly facing the sanctum where the Shiva lingam is enshrined. These sculptures, typically large and serene, reflect the spiritual symbolism of Nandi as a loyal guardian and embodiment of Dharma.  

Archaeologists trace bull symbolism back to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, where seals and figurines of bulls, particularly the iconic ‘unicorn bull’ seals found in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, highlight the animal’s significance. These artifacts suggest the bull’s important role in agriculture and trade, symbolizing fertility, prosperity and economic strength. The frequent depiction of bulls on these seals indicates their revered status in both sacred and everyday life, making the bull a vital link between the divine and practical realms in early Indian society.

Symbolism in Indian Art

The bull is a prominent motif in traditional Indian art. It appears in both paintings and sculptures beyond just its depiction as Nandi. These representations often emphasize the bull’s muscular physique, symbolizing themes of fertility and agricultural abundance. Paintings of bulls, such as those found in rural folk art or the distinctive Madhubani style, celebrate the bull’s integral role in daily life and its connection to the land’s productivity. Similarly, sculptures of the bull, particularly in regions where agriculture was central, convey the animal’s symbolic status as a representation of prosperity and life-sustaining power.

Comparative Analysis of Lion and Bull Symbolism

The lion and the bull are central symbols in Indian art and culture. Both represent contrasting yet complementary qualities. People traditionally see the lion as a symbol of power, defense and royalty. They often associate it with kingship and divine authority. It represents courage, dominance and regal presence, as evident in depictions of Goddess Durga riding a lion or the lion capital of the Ashoka Pillar, which symbolizes sovereign power and the protection of Dharma.

On the other hand, the bull, particularly the figure of Nandi, symbolizes strength, fertility and religious devotion. Nandi, who is the companion of Lord Shiva, reflects loyalty, endurance and the nurturing aspect of power, closely linked to agricultural life and spiritual dedication.

Despite their contrasting attributes, the lion and bull share common themes in Indian symbolism. People see them both as protectors of Dharma, representing divine connection and cosmic balance. The lion, as a fierce guardian, upholds justice and royal authority, while the bull, as a calm and powerful figure, embodies spiritual strength and moral law. Both animals, in their respective contexts, serve as embodiments of power and protection, bridging the material and divine realms, and reinforcing the moral and spiritual laws that govern life.

Lion and Bull in Modern Indian Culture

In modern India, the lion and bull still remain significant symbols. The modern embodiment of these symbols reflects their enduring cultural and historical importance. The national emblem featuring Ashoka’s four lions represents India’s power, sovereignty and commitment to justice and integrity.

The bull is deeply woven into cultural practices, especially in South India. Festivals like Pongal and Jallikattu celebrate the bull’s agricultural and cultural significance. Pongal honors the bull’s vital role in farming, symbolizing fertility, prosperity, and the bond between people and the land. Jallikattu showcases the strength and bravery of both the bull and the participants, highlighting the animal’s importance in rural and agricultural traditions. Together, the lion and bull symbolize the balance between governance and agriculture, authority and sustenance, in modern Indian culture.

The lion and the bull are deeply rooted, emblematic figures in Indian mythology, art, and architecture. Their symbolic representations reflect the richness of Indian culture, which reveres these animals for their spiritual, regal, and life-sustaining qualities. The lion, as a symbol of power, defense and sovereignty and the bull, as a representation of strength, devotion and fertility, are interwoven into the very fabric of Indian civilization, serving as archetypes that transcend time and space.

References:

1. Semantic Scholar
2. Shawnee State University
3. Journal of International Buddhist Studies
4. University of Cambridge
5. Heritage University of Kerala
6. JSTOR

India, known as the land of diversity, is home to a multitude of communities, each with unique cultural traditions. This diversity is reflected in the numerous festivals celebrated across the country, honoring the various deities revered by these communities. The methods and practices of celebrating these festivals also vary significantly from one state to another due to India’s cultural heritage. Festivals are an integral part of Indian culture and have been passed down for generations. These festivals help in fostering unity and harmony among the people and are a representation of the long-standing traditions of the country. 

Historical Overview of Rituals and Festivals

Festivals and rituals are cultural practices that foster social connections and communication. Ancient societies worldwide set aside specific times for public celebrations, attracting large numbers of people. Over time, with the emergence of new religious beliefs and practices, these early festivities underwent significant changes and evolution. The earliest known rituals were those associated with death, as evidenced by the ritual burial practices of early Paleolithic humans and Neanderthals, which suggest their concern for the deceased and the care they provided in their final rites.

The lives of ancient people in India were centered around agriculture and the cycles of nature. Therefore, the earliest festivals and celebrations related to these fundamental aspects of human existence. People eagerly welcomed the coming of spring and the end of winter with joyous celebrations. The planting of new crops was also an important seasonal event. It was celebrated with various rites and rituals. Through these celebrations, people expressed their hopes and prayers for a bountiful harvest.

One such ancient festival still celebrated across India is Makar Sankranti. The festival, observed on January 13-14, goes by various regional names such as Uttarayana, Lohri, Pongal, Bihu, and Khichdi. Farmers and peasants especially celebrate it, marking the newly harvested crops with food rituals. However, it also garners great enthusiasm in towns and cities, reminding everyone of our deep agrarian roots and connection to the land.

Vedic Literature and Rituals and Festivals

The literature of the Vedic period contains numerous references to public events organized to appease and honor gods, ancestors, and the changing seasons. These events were integral to the spiritual and cultural fabric of ancient Indian society. People performed rituals known as Yajnas to offer the gods a share of grain, milk, and ghee. They always dedicated the first oblation to the sacred fire. Even today, many Indian cultures consider fire to be the centrality of the divine in various rituals and ceremonies. 

In the subsequent period, people held celebrations through Samajas—gatherings for entertainment and rejoicing. These social events strengthened community bonds and fostered a shared sense of identity. The state organized Utsavas, or festivals, with the intervention of the ruling king. This formalized the celebrations and aligned them with the instructions issued by the king, highlighting the close relationship between religious practice and political authority in ancient India.

Significance of Festivals and Rituals in Indian Society

In India, festivals offer much more than a temporary respite from everyday hustling. These celebrations are imbued with deep inner significance, each being a multifaceted celebration. Every festival celebrated in India draws from a story in the Puranas, offering insight into its deeper spiritual meaning and the foundations of the celebration. These stories are part of common folklore, reaching out to the common people in a way that dry theological facts cannot. 

Festivals also become a source of motivation for temporary escape, social interaction, and community bonding for the attendees. Festivals have been viewed as a way to foster geographical connections, a sense of belonging, and adaptability. Though festivals may be rooted in specific religious or cultural beliefs, they are typically open to participation from people of diverse backgrounds. For example, even non-Hindus enthusiastically celebrate Holi, which is predominantly a Hindu festival, in the secular nation of India. People from different countries visit Varanasi in India to participate in the festivities of Holi. Similarly, Eid-ul-Fitr involves numerous iftar feasts for friends and family, of all religions. Such festivals bring the society and community together.

Most Indian festivals place great emphasis on community service. These celebrations often involve fasting, prayer, and observances of social and cultural significance. They may also feature arduous physical exercises, as well as musical, dance, and theatrical performances. Muslims observe numerous festivals. Many of them are connected to the Shia faith. Two such important observances are the Prophet’s birthday and the martyrdom of Imam Husain.

Conclusion

Festivals are a way for communities to express and uphold their shared beliefs, values, and traditions. These celebrations reinforce the cultural identity of the people, creating a sense of belonging and unity. Indigenous communities use festivals to preserve their distinct traditional practices, ensuring the continuation of their legacy. Festivals that focus on cultural or ethnic themes also aim to educate community members about their traditions. Most festivals include elders sharing stories and experiences during these events to foster unity within families. Through the celebrations of various festivals, Indian society has maintained a close relationship with nature and the divine.

Members of society celebrate cultural festivals for many reasons. They pass down the knowledge of rituals, traditions, beliefs, and norms from one generation to the next. However, they also ensure their ongoing preservation and the development of diverse values. These cultural festivals play a vital role in the cultural growth of individuals. They provide them with opportunities for rejuvenation and personal development.

Festivals and rituals have been an integral part of Indian society for centuries. While cultural traditions have evolved over time to reflect their dynamic nature, people still celebrate them with a lively spirit. Festivals and rituals serve multiple roles in Indian society. They help preserve cultural identity, foster community bonding, and connect people with the divine. These celebrations are essential in maintaining the rich cultural history of India, promoting social harmony, and nurturing a shared sense of identity among the diverse communities that make up the nation.

The Gandhara region, situated at the crossroads of ancient civilizations, has a rich and diverse artistic legacy that has long captivated scholars and art enthusiasts. Gandhara art flourished during the early centuries of the Common Era and is renowned for its unique blend of Buddhist iconography and Greco-Roman artistic traditions.

The Gandhara School of Art was one of the most significant art schools in ancient Indian history. Although Indian history integrates it, scholars distinctly associate it with the Greco-Bactrian art style. Greco-Bactrian art thrived primarily in Afghanistan and present-day northwestern India, with prominent centers including Taxila, Peshawar, Begram, and Bamiyan. Experts generally consider the Gandhara school of art to have flourished from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE.

Origin and Historical Evidence

According to historian Abdur Rasool, the region that is now Pakistan was the origin of the Gandhara Civilization, which emerged shortly after Alexander the Great’s arrival in 325 BC. This area also witnessed Alexander’s first military defeat at the hands of Raja Porus of Jhelum. Over the years, Gandhara underwent several political takeovers by Persian and Greek powers.

Various Power Structures

After Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BC, his vast empire fell apart quickly. This allowed Indian princes to regain their independence. During this turbulent period, Chandragupta Maurya, from the Magadha royal family, seized control of a large part of northwest India. Over time, he overthrew the Nanda dynasty in Magadha and became the ruler of Hindustan. Chandragupta reigned for 25 years before passing the throne to his son Bindusara in 298 BC. Like his father, Bindusara maintained friendly relations with the Greek rulers of the West, including the Seleucid dynasty, cemented through a marriage alliance after Chandragupta’s victory over the Greeks in battle.

People consider Ashoka, Chandragupta’s grandson, who became king in 272 BC, to be one of ancient India’s most capable and enlightened rulers. After witnessing the horrors of war, Ashoka embraced Buddhism and made it the state religion, even though the people were reluctant. However, Ashoka’s death marked the beginning of the Mauryan Empire’s decline. 

As historian V. Smith explains, the Indus Valley then came under the rule of the Greek rulers of Bactria, though they struggled to maintain control of the region. In the mid-2nd century AD, a new powerful group emerged in Central Asia—the Yuezhi, a nomadic and warlike people. They rapidly expanded westward, ending the Greek Kingdom of Bactria that had existed since Alexander the Great’s conquests.

This marked another pivotal moment in the region’s history, underscoring the fluid and shifting power structures that characterized ancient Central and South Asia.

Credits: Asia Society

The map shows the area covered by the Gandhara Civilisation. It includes present day Pakistan, Northeast of Afghanistan and Southwest of China.

Greek Influences

Gandharan art can be traced to the 1st century BCE and includes painting, sculpture, coins, pottery, and all the associated elements of an artistic tradition. It took flight during the Kushan era especially under King Kanishka in the 1st century CE, who deified the Buddha and arguably introduced the Buddha image.

John Boardman characterizes Gandhara art as the culmination of Greek artistic traditions, particularly those of Classical and Hellenistic Greece. The artistic traditions of northwest India, which was successively ruled by the Seleucids, Bactrians, Parthians, Scythians, and Indo-Greeks, were deeply influenced by these Greek styles. The Indo-Greeks were influenced by the Greeks since they were exposed to so much of their culture, philosophy, art, and architecture. The artists that worked in Bactria also worked in Gandhara as well. We can see the influence of Greek artists on Indian sculptures in that region. As a result, Buddhist sculptors were either Greeks or learned from the Greeks. The same people worked in Bactria and Gandhara and we can see that by comparing the art on the coins because both places had the same Indo-Greek monarch.

Introduction to Gandharan Art

Gandharan art emerged around the 1st century BCE, combining diverse cultural influences from the region. This artistic style encompassed a range of mediums, including painting, sculpture, coins, and pottery, reflecting the area’s cultural diversity. The art form, particularly thrived during the Kushan era, especially under the reign of King Kanishka in the 1st century CE. Kanishka played a crucial role in deifying the Buddha and is believed to have introduced the first iconic representations of the Buddha.

Greek Influence on Gandharan Art

According to renowned historian John Boardman, Gandharan art represents the culmination of influential Greek artistic traditions, particularly from the Classical and Hellenistic periods. The region of northwest India, which was successively governed by the Seleucids, Bactrians, Parthians, Scythians, and Indo-Greeks, absorbed substantial Greek influences in art and culture. The Indo-Greeks, having been exposed to Greek culture, philosophy, art, and architecture, brought these elements to Gandhara. Furthermore, artists from the region of Bactria also contributed to the art of Gandhara, infusing it with Greek aesthetics, which can be seen in the area’s Buddhist sculptures.

Mythological Representations and Artistic Techniques

Gandharan art repeatedly showcases figures from Greek mythology, like the iconic Trojan Horse and the mighty Heracles. A defining feature of Classical Greek sculpture is its lifelike depiction of the human form, often intertwined with divine elements. As the scholar Ridgeway observed, “the driving force behind Greek monumental stone sculpture was essentially religious in nature.” This religious and artistic approach, when blended with Indian cultural themes, heavily shaped the evolution of Buddhist iconography, particularly through the emergence of humanlike portrayals of the Buddha. The fusion of Greek artistic principles with Indian religious imagery resulted in a unique style that left a lasting mark on regional artistic traditions.

Hellenistic Features in Gandharan Art

Gandharan art clearly shows the influence of Hellenistic styles. The figures are inspired by Greek models, with wavy hair and tight, pleated clothing.

Credits: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The ideal Hellenistic physique – slender and muscular, like a Greek athlete – was used for Buddha and Bodhisattva sculptures. Even the ushnisha on the Buddha’s head was based on Hellenistic hairstyles. And the nimbus or halo around the Buddha’s head is reminiscent of the imagery used for Greek sun gods, like Apollo.

Credits: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Bodhisattva in Gandharan Art

In addition to representations of the Buddha, the Bodhisattva is a crucial part of Gandharan art. It symbolizes the Buddha before reaching enlightenment. Various Bodhisattvas from the Buddha’s past lives, like Avalokiteshvara, Maitreya, Padmapani, and Manjushri, are prominently featured in this artistic tradition. Unlike the simplicity of Buddha images, Bodhisattva sculptures and depictions are elaborately adorned, with jewelry, headdresses, robes, and footwear. This helps distinguish the different incarnations by their attire, postures, and symbolic mudras.

Credits: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Evolution into a Hybrid Style

At first, Gandharan art was heavily influenced by the Hellenistic style. However, over time it blended with Indian visual elements, crafting a unique hybrid style known as the Gandhara style. While Greek artistic influence didn’t spread across all of India, it clearly had a significant impact on regional sculpture. Back in the 3rd century BCE, Buddhist sculptures didn’t depict the Buddha as a human. Rather, they used symbols like the Dharma Chakra, thrones, footprints, or the Bodhi tree. It was only later, during the Hellenistic period, that the Buddha started being represented in an iconic human form.

Bactrian Influence on Gandharan Art

Bactria’s influence on Gandharan art is pretty clear. Archaeologist J. Hackin shed light on how important Bactria was. However, its role wasn’t fully appreciated until later excavations uncovered a major Graeco-Iranian artistic tradition there. The stucco heads from Gandhara are super diverse and complex – some were molded, others sculpted freehand. They show a mix of styles, with a realistic, individualized touch that traces back to Hellenistic terracottas and Greek art. These stuccos, found in places like Hadda and Taxila, often depict minor gods, demons, and patrons, highlighting the artistic connections between the regions.

Even though we don’t have tons of Graeco-Bactrian art and the timelines are murky, it’s obvious Bactria and Gandhara were closely linked. Some Bactrian sculptures act as a vital bridge between late Hellenistic art and Gandharan sculpture. They prove how intertwined these traditions were. Gandharan art blended Greek, Roman, Parthian, and Bactrian influences to create a unique style that still captivated scholars.

Important Archaeological Sites of Gandhara

Taxila: A World Heritage Site and Cultural Treasure

Taxila, located in Pakistan’s Punjab province, is a UNESCO World Heritage site that’s famous for its rich history. This old city is filled with all kinds of historic buildings, fortified towns, stupas, and monasteries. These display a mix of foreign influences in their art and architecture. From the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE, Taxila was an important hub for Buddhist education. It attracted scholars and monks from around the region to study Buddhist education. Many of the iconic Gandharan sculptures and artifacts have been discovered here over the years.

One of the most remarkable sites in Taxila is the Dharamrajika Stupa. People say that it contained the Buddha’s original relics. This place is full of Buddhist art, with loads of stone and stucco statues of the Buddha. Plus, the stupa has panels showing important moments from the Buddha’s life. So, it’s a crucial spot for learning about how Buddhism spread through the region.

Chakdara: A Historical Site

Chakdara, a site with a multi-millennial history, is another significant location near Taxila. It is dotted with archaeological remains from the Gandhara burial culture, Buddhist structures, and Hindu Shahi fortifications. This highlights its enduring importance within the regional historical narrative. Chakdara’s archaeological abundance offers invaluable insights into the diverse cultural and religious forces that have shaped the area over the course of centuries.

Charsadda: The Capital of Ancient Gandhara

Charsadda, the former capital of the Kingdom of Gandhara, was a historically significant city. Around 516 BCE, Gandhara was incorporated into the seventh satrapy, or province, of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, and its people paid tribute to Darius the Great. This status persisted until the region was conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE. This marked another pivotal chapter in Gandhara’s rich and diverse history. As the capital city, Charsadda’s historical importance and connections to major ancient empires underscore its central role in ancient Gandhara.

Conclusion

Today, Gandhara sculptures are not limited to Pakistan’s national and local museums. They are prominently displayed in prominent international art institutions across the Far East, Australia, Europe, and North America. Musée Guimet, the Berlin Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Museum, the MET, and the Oriental Institute all house exceptional examples of Gandhara art. This widespread global interest is a testament to the authentic beauty and enduring appeal of Gandhara sculpture. It captivates art enthusiasts worldwide much like the renowned pottery of ancient Greece and the art of ancient Egypt.

Historically, Indian art is marked by wealthy patrons and monarchs who built grand monuments for fame and religious merit. In contrast, during the early Buddhist period, ordinary people such as housewives, fishermen, gardeners, merchants, and bankers were central to constructing monuments called “stupas”. The term “stupa” is derived from Sanskrit, meaning “to gather” and “to add.” It can also refer to a lock of hair, the top of the head, a wreath of flowers, or a stack or pile of soil or bricks. The stupas were significant because they were the first major Indian artworks constructed using durable stone rather than more short-lived materials. Ordinary people drove this major innovation by collectively donating to build Buddhist stupas and early cave monasteries.

Origin and Historical Context

The origins of the stupa can be traced back to ancient India. Initially, they served as simple burial mounds or reliquaries for the remains of the Buddha and other revered figures. Over time, the stupa evolved into a complex symbol imbued with deep religious significance. The most famous example is the Great Stupa at Sanchi, commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. It remains a beacon of Buddhist art and architecture even today.

Stupas have since spread across Asia, from the towering structures of Borobudur in Indonesia to the ornate stupas of Tibet and the minimalist forms in Japan. Each region has adapted the stupa to match its own artistic and cultural traditions. However, the core symbolism – representing the Buddha’s enlightened state – has remained unchanged. 

These structures not only served as significant religious markers but also functioned as focal points for communal worship and pilgrimage. They reflect the collective devotion and egalitarian spirit of the early Buddhist laity, who resisted hierarchy and sought to uphold the Buddha’s original egalitarian vision.

At first, stupas were just places to enshrine the Buddha’s relics. Over time, they also became shrines for the remains of the Buddha’s followers. Eventually, the stupas themselves became objects of worship. Before Ashoka’s reign, people had already built eight stupas dedicated to the Buddha at different sites. Each of them connected to a significant moment in his life. Some stupas, like the Great Stupa in Sanchi, India, or the intricately designed Boudhanath Stupa in Kathmandu, Nepal, are grand and lavish, while others are simpler and understated.

Symbolism

By studying the Sanchi Buddhist temple, historians have uncovered the deep symbolism and significance of early Buddhist art. The artistic expressions of these early devotees showcased their commitment to Buddhism’s central tenets and captured the Buddha’s dual nature – both human and divine.

Art historian J. Irwin explains that early stupas had two main parts: a central pillar rising from the ground and a dome-like roof called the anda or “egg.” These structures formed a Cosmogram, representing the cosmic order, which was imposed on the land where the stupa was built. Irwin emphasizes that the central pillar, known as the yupa or Inda-khila, had deep cosmogonic and religious significance.

Originally made of wood, this pillar symbolized the Axis Mundi. The Axis Mundi connects to the World Tree and World Pillar, symbols that represent the link between heaven and Earth. The orientation of the Axis Mundi to the four cardinal directions symbolised the unity of space and time. This allowed worshippers to align themselves with the cosmic cycle.

Irwin further notes that some stupas were metaphorically surrounded by water, symbolising the Cosmic Waters. The metaphorical symbol reinforces the idea of the stupa as a microcosm—a dynamic representation of the universe’s creation. The ancient Vedic text, the Rigveda, presents the idea that the stupa’s dome represents the Primordial Mound formed from the cosmic waters. In the early days, ordinary people worshipped stupas. After the Buddha’s death, they saw the stupa as a way to honour him and earn good karma since he was no longer physically present. Over time, the stupa became a symbol representing the departed Buddha and Buddhists. It focused on incorporating the Buddha’s physical remains within these structures.

Structure and Meaning

The Buddhist stupa represents the core teachings of Buddhism. It encourages practitioners to understand that life involves suffering. But this can be overcome by changing one’s perspective. By following the Buddha’s teachings, people can gain deeper insight, manage their thoughts and actions better, and find inner peace and harmony. The stupa’s design and purpose help practitioners recognise the impermanent nature of life – that desires, fears, and grief are temporary. This allows them to value these aspects without becoming overly attached. Gathering and focusing their energy at the stupa can help practitioners centre and uplift themselves through rituals.

The stupa’s design is meant to inspire the mind. Its tall spire, called the yasti, represents the axis mundi, the centre of the Earth around which the universe turns. It also symbolises the World Tree, found in many cultures, with roots deep in the Earth and branches reaching up to the sky. Around the yasti stands a square gate known as the harmika, and above it are parasols that symbolise protection, grandeur, and the Buddha himself. The stupa’s large dome rises from the central spire to a square base. This is occasionally enclosed by a wall with four gates facing the cardinal directions. These directions represent four important moments in Buddha’s life:

• East: Buddha’s birth
• South: Buddha’s enlightenment
• West: Buddha’s first teaching
• North: Buddha’s final passing away (Nirvana)

Symbolism of Stupa Architecture

Credits: World History Encyclopaedia

The parts of the stupa’s architecture have deep symbolic meaning. They guide followers toward a spiritual understanding of the universe. This profound Buddhist belief is shown in different aspects of the stupa’s design:

1. Anda: The stupa’s dome, or anda, is circular, symbolising infinity and continuity. In Indian art, the circle represents the eternal and divine movement of the heavens. The circular design of the stupa is a metaphor for the endless nature of Nirvana. This idea relates to the Mandala, which represents a sacred space, and the Chakra, which symbolises the divine order of the universe.
2. Harmika: The harmika is the square section connecting the stupa’s circular base to its upper levels. In Buddhist art, the harmika symbolises the heavenly realm above the physical world. The square shape represents stability, solidity, and the boundaries of the Earth, while the circle signifies the infinite nature of the universe.
3. Yasti: The central axis, known as the yasti, represents the cosmic axis around which the universe revolves. This axis serves as a connection between the Earth and the heavens, symbolising the unity of the cosmos. Additionally, the yasti is associated with the mythology of the cosmic serpent, Ananta, whose infinite nature mirrors the eternal qualities of the universe.
4. Chatraveli: The umbrellas, or chatraveli, placed atop the yasti represent respect and safeguarding. These umbrellas, traditionally linked to esteemed individuals, have become symbols of the three core aspects of Buddhism: the Buddha, dharma (the teachings), and sangha (the community).
5. Palisades: The fences surrounding the stupa are based on ancient Indian traditions of enclosing sacred spaces. The stone palisades around the Sanchi Stupa drew inspiration from wooden fences that once protected holy sites, evoking the ancient symbol of the swastika and the protective barriers used by farmers to safeguard their livestock.

Conclusion

The Buddhist stupa is a remarkable architectural structure and a piece of art that visually expresses the core principles and beliefs of Buddhism. It captures the essence of Buddhist teachings through symbols in a timeless and accessible form. The stupa serves as a reminder of the path to enlightenment, encouraging practitioners to engage with the Buddha’s teachings through contemplation and ritual practice.

India has a great tradition of string puppets, which reflects its multicultural society. Every region has its own style based on local traditions, folklore, and artistry. Let us look at six notable types of string puppets from various states that celebrate their distinctive attraction and importance.

Putal Nach – Assam

Putal Nach, the traditional string puppetry of Assam, is an example of rich Assamese culture. They are typically wooden or cloth puppets staging stories from local myths, legends and social matters. Traditional music accompanies this performance, and the background is rhythmic for these colourful narratives. Putal Nach’s act remains one of the most cherished art forms as it keeps alive the cultural heritage of storytelling in Assam.

Gombeyatta – Karnataka

Gombeyatta string puppetry in Karnataka is famous for its elaborate dolls and dynamic performances. The dolls are carved out of wood with bright outfits and meticulously designed countenances. Many performances show episodes from Hindu epics like Ramayana or Mahabharata. Gombeyatta unites dance, music, and drama to present a stunning event capable of captivating audiences of any age.

Kalasutri Bahulya – Maharashtra

The traditional puppetry of Maharashtra is called Kalasutri Bahulya. These are wooden puppets, which are simple but highly expressive. With the help of strings, they depict stories from folklore and mythology along with moral lessons. Lively dialogues and Marathi songs reflect cultural ethos in these performances. Kalasutri Bahulya fosters artistic education and entertainment.

Gopalila Kundhei – Odisha

The string puppets used in Gopalila Kundhei from Odisha are intricate. These puppets are manipulated gracefully through their strings to portray stories about Krishna’s life. The attention to detail on these puppets is evident since they are usually painted with bright colours. While performing, traditional Odia music and narrations accompany them, keeping Gopalila Kundhei a precious art form involving ancient stories.

Kathputli – Rajasthan

Kathputli is a famous string puppetry of Rajasthan, characterised by its intricate puppets and engaging storytelling. Kathputli dolls, made of wood and cloth, have vivid attires and expressive faces. Often accompanied by performances, folk music tells tales about great kings, queens and other legendary heroes. On the part of Rajasthan, this is not just an art but rather a living tradition that portrays their rich cultural tapestry.

Bommalattam – Tamil Nadu

Bommalattam, the traditional puppet theatre of Tamil Nadu, is combined with dancing and drama. These dolls are mostly made from wood or cloth and are used to explain tales from the ancient epics, folklore and local legends. Bommalattam performances are colourful, and the Tamil spoken dialogues are lively, with music to capture the true spirit and culture that characterise South India.

India’s string puppetry goes beyond mere entertainment; it is a living tradition that perpetuates cultural narratives of different regions. Each type of puppetry has unique features and storytelling techniques that enrich the Indian mosaic heritage by ensuring that these age-old art forms captivate future generations.